Propagating Fruits and Vegetables

See the Starting From sections for general information on propagation techniques. More precise details on how to reproduce a species are given only if these differ from the usual. That is, a germinating temperature of 60 to 65F (15 to 18C) is assumed, air layering is done in early summer, etc., unless otherwise stated.

Fruit trees are easily grown. Note, however, that many need to be cross-pollinated in order to produce fruit, and that a cold period of variable length, or chilling period, is typically required to break dormancy. This period of time varies markedly even within a species, depending on the cultivar, and one should check carefully whether a given type will reliably produce fruit in a specific area, before buying.

Abelmoschus esculentus

okra, lady's fingers

Sow outside 2 weeks after last frost date, 1/2" deep, 2" apart, rows every 2' in fertile soil, thinning to 8" apart. May also start indoors 3 weeks before last frost date, 75-85F/24-30C, and set outside 2 or more weeks after last frost; protect from cold in cooler climates. Sunny spot. Soaking in hand-warm water prior to sowing assists germination, as does nicking the hard seed-coat prior to planting

Actinidia species

kiwi

Grow from stem cuttings taken from early summer to autumn; bottom heat may assist with rooting. Enjoys warm, sunny spot, some shade for A. kolomikta; excellent drainage required. Water well; keep mulched during growing season. Plant new specimens early spring, some 10' apart; may be stored cool, somewhat dark and moist until soil ready to work. Protect young plants in winter and early spring

May also be grown from seed sown in spring, 55-65F/13-18C, 1/8" deep, will not grow true to type. Female plants require a male plant for fertilization and fruiting, within fairly close proximity - a ratio of 10 female plants or less to 1 male works well. Hardiest are A. arguta, to zone 4, and A. kolomikta, to zone 3

Allium cepa

onion

Onions may be sown in autumn just before the first frost, and throughout winter, provided the winter is not too severe or wet. Or sow inside early in year, 3 months before last expected frost, or shallowly outside in spring, 1" apart. Well-drained, rich, light soil ideal, keep area free from weeds; rotate to another part of the garden every few years

Keep cool and in good light. Harden inside-started plants off gradually, and set 6" apart 4 weeks before last frost, 4" apart for smaller onions or if planted in rows. Set base just deep enough to anchor in soil. Plants often grow easier and better from seed; note that germination is poor above 80F/27C

Sets are young, heat-treated onions that are planted directly into moist soil, 6" apart, rows 12" apart, in early spring. These may be started in-side: set on moist soil, allow initial inch of root growth before trans-planting. To grow sets, sow well-storing onions some 3/4" apart, to limit their growth to that diameter, and do not fertilize; harvest end of growing season, and use the following year

Select onions appropriate to your area, starting these at the right time, as type of onion and length of daylight controls growth versus mature bulb formation

Summer cultivars can be sown where winters allow, from August on, for harvesting early next year. Timing here is essential: plants should not grow much beyond a 1/4" diameter prior to winter. Finally, if the soil is likely to freeze, protect with mulch, removing mulch early in spring

Allium cepa aggregatum

multiplier onion, Egyptian onion

Plant in autumn for harvest the next spring, bulbils may also be planted in late autumn or be stored cool over the winter and planted in mid-spring. Provide ample water; soil should be fairly fertile, light, well-drained

Allium fistulosum

Welsh onion, scallion, ciboule

Sow outside in spring, or may be sown in summer for autumn, or next year's harvest. Sow shallowly, inside 10 weeks before last frost or out-side, and provide with cool temperatures and good light. Harden off and plant 6" seedlings in spring, in good rich soil, sun. Spreads readily by division, and overwinters well under mulch. Soil fairly fertile, light, well-drained

Purchased sets may be planted very early in spring

Allium porrum

leek

Start seed 10-12 weeks before last frost, 60-70F/15-21C, or sow out-side when frost clears; seedlings started inside should be planted on into larger pots as required. Plant 6" apart, rows 12" apart, in rich, light and well-drained soil, good to moderate light. Set seedlings deep enough such that only a few inches of leaf are above ground, or plant in a 12"-deep trench that is gradually filled during the growing season

Water well until established, and during the heat of summer. Plants sown in early summer may overwinter well for spring cropping

Amaranthus tricolor

vegetable amaranth, leaf amaranth, calaloo

Sow 1/4" deep and 2" apart in spring after last frost, when soil has warmed to 70F/21C, rows 8" apart; thin to every 6". May also start in-doors three weeks before last frost, and transplant when the nights have warmed. Fertile, well-drained soil and full sun ideal. Tolerates heat. Some subtypes grown exclusively for their foliage, i.e. A. tricolor 'Joseph's Coat'

Ananas comosus

pineapple

 

Tops may be cleanly sliced off store-bought fruits, taking care not to damage the shoot, allowed to callus a few days, then rooted in warmth, 70-80F/21-27C; best also grown at these temperatures. Alternatively, propagate by dividing off fair-sized suckers in mid-spring. Space plants 20" apart in all directions. Good light, sheltered location, and acidic well-drained soil are needed, as are regular waterings and feed-ings. May be grown indoors in a good-sized pot. Also known as A. sativus. Zone 10

Apium graveolens

celery, celeriac

Start indoors 3 months before last frost, set out around or after last frost date; keep seedlings well thinned to prevent crowding. Germinate at 60-70F/15-21C; may soak 12 hours before sowing just covered, good indirect light, keep moist. Likes lower temperatures for growth; too cold and it may go to seed too quickly. Transplant when 4" high, space 12" apart. Rich well-drained soil, ample water, and protection from full sun required

Arachis hypogaea

peanut, groundnut

Annual started from seed each spring, 1/4" deep, 70-85F/21-29C, and grown on at same temperatures, in slightly acidic, well-draining and nitrogen-poor soils. Thin to 6" apart, in rows 2' apart. High humidity. If started indoors, harden off plants when 6" tall, and move outside when weather has consistently warmed

Asimina triloba

pawpaw, Michigan banana

Grow from seed sown in autumn, or propagate by layering. Rich, well-draining, moist soil, sun to part shade. More than one type required for cross-pollination. Zone 5-9

Asparagus officinalis

asparagus

Asparagus is a plant for cooler climates, requiring frost in winter. Rich, rich, rich and well-drained soil essential. Crowns should have a root system at least 12" wide, and are set in holes 6 to 8" deep, filled with 2" soil. Fill in gradually during the season. Do not allow crowns to dry out before planting, and set each some 2 1/2' apart. Do not cut the first year. Remove dead tops at end of the season; propagate by dividing rhizomatous crowns in late winter, before new growth begins. This perennial can last 15-20 years

Crowns may be started from seed, 12 weeks prior to last expected frost. Sow at 65-75F/18-24C, and soak one or two nights before planting 2" apart, 1/4" deep. Set out 3 weeks prior to last frost, into permanent position in garden. May also be sown in autumn. Feed well

Beta vulgaris

beet

Soak seeds in warm water 1 hour for quicker germination, to leach out a germination inhibitor, sow thinly 1/2" deep, 1-2" apart, firming soil well. Start 2-3 weeks before last expected frost, again 4 weeks later and in early to midsummer. Will go to seed if sown too early

Space rows 1' apart, thin to 4" between plants, and transplant thinnings for a later crop. Pickling beets can be spaced 3" apart in all directions. Temperature around 60F/15C is ideal for growth; keep on dry side. Full sun to some shade, well-drained light soil, does best grown in hilled rows or beds; provide ample water

Beta vulgaris cicla

swiss chard

Sow 1/2" deep in spring, every 2" with rows spaced 18". Thin to 6" apart when plants start to crowd. Sow again in late summer, up to 3 weeks before last frost; will overwinter in mild climates, especially if protected. Moist and rich soil is ideal, avoiding acidic soils

Brassica juncea

mustard greens, Oriental mustard

Sow 1/4" deep, spring and summer, spacing seeds 1" apart, and thin to every 4-6"; space rows every 20". In warmer climates, may be sown in mid-summer, for autumn, winter and spring harvesting. Very fertile, moist, nitrogen-rich soil ideal

Brassica napus 

rutabaga, Swede turnip

Sow seed 1/2" deep, late spring or early summer, for harvest after first few frosts; plant 2" apart in rows spaced 15", fertile, neutral, well-drained and nitrogen-poor soil. Thin to 8" apart. Like most brassicas, a cool-season crop with good frost tolerance

Brassica oleracea

acephala kale, collards

Sow indoors, 6 weeks before last frost, or outdoors 3 weeks later, 1/2" deep. Harden off and transplant indoor-started specimens when soil temperature has reached 50F/10C, or some 3 weeks before last frost. Sink plants slightly below soil level, 12" apart, in rich well-drained soil

Kale is cold-tolerant and may be sown again in early summer, some 3 months before first autumn frost, for autumn and winter harvesting, when it tastes best. Do not overfeed with nitrogenous material

Brassica oleracea botrytis

cauliflower

Start seed 6 weeks before last frost, ideally in biodegradable pots, transplanting to the garden after the last frost, when some 6" tall. Sink plants slightly below soil level, 2" apart, rich soil, and thin later to 2-3' apart. Keep well-watered; may mulch in summer. Frost-hardy, may be sown again 3 months before first expected frost, for harvest late that year. In warm climates, sow autumn or winter for crop

Brassica oleracea capitata

cabbage

Start indoors 6 weeks before last frost. Sow sparingly, seeds spaced 2", into well-drained, rich and nitrogen-rich soil with neutral pH. Set in garden some 2 weeks before last frost, sinking them slightly below soil level, 2" apart. Thin to 20". Feed well, mulch in hot weather, water regularly

Continue seeding until 14 weeks before last frost date, for harvest later that year; may intercrop with other plants. Optimum temperature 55-70F/12-21C for germination and growing

Brassica oleracea gemmifera

brussels sprouts

Start indoors 1 1/2 months before last frost. Set out 3 weeks before last frost, sinking transplants slightly below soil level, 18-24" apart, de-pending on size of cultivar. Or sow outside directly, late spring. Cold-tolerant and may be sown again at least 4 months before first expected frost, for harvest late that year

Keep well-watered; grow in rich soil. As plants grow, mound earth up around stems to provide the top-heavy plants with stability; mulching helps keep plants cool in warmer weather. Frost needed for best taste

Brassica oleracea gongylodes

kohlrabi

A cool-season plant, may grown from spring onward in cooler climates, should be grown autumn and winter in warm areas, with temperatures less

than 75F/24C ideal. Sow 1/4" deep in well-drained, rich organic soil, 1" apart, thin to every 4", rows 12" apart

Brassica oleracea italica

broccoli

A cool-season vegetable like most brassicas, with ideal temperatures of no more than 65F/18C. May start indoors 6 weeks before last frost, and transplant when 4" tall, setting plants 4" apart, from 2 weeks prior to last frost date onward. Sink plants slightly below soil level. Sow 1/4" deep directly outdoors, several weeks before last frost. Thin to 9" apart for smaller crops, 12" or more for larger heads

May be sown again in late June for harvest late that year; last sowing should be made 3 months before last frost. Good light ideal, though some protection from full sun in hot weather helps prevent bolting; mulch when warmer to keep cool

Brassica rapa

various Oriental greens

Many B. rapa subtypes are very popular Oriental greens, including mibuna, mizuna and kyona, or subspecies japonica, and komatsuna, subspecies perviridis; the latter especially is fairly hardy. These may be sown throughout spring and summer, or in autumn in warmer climates. Sow 1/4" deep, every 2", with rows spaced every 18"; thin to two plants per 10-12"; like all brassicas, enjoys very fertile, moist, nitrogen-rich soil

Brassica rapa chinensis

bok choi

Sow this cool-weather vegetable every 2-4" into fertile, nitrogen-rich soil throughout spring and autumn; provide ample water. Thin to 4-12" apart, depending on cultivar. With milder winters and some form of protection may be grown as a biennial

Brassica rapa pekinensis

Chinese cabbage, pak choi pac choi

May be started indoors late March, early April; transplanted around or after last frost date, taking care not to disturb the roots. Easily sown outside, however, starting around last frost date, spacing plants 10-12" apart, in rows 18" apart. If sown outside, less likely to bolt if not sown until start of summer. Rich, consistently moist soil

Brassica rapa rapifera

turnip

Sow 1/2" deep; start indoors 6 weeks prior to last frost, or sow out-doors 4 week before last frost date, thin to 4". Can be sown late in year, 2 to 2 1/2 months before first autumn frost, and will last well into win-ter. Thin these to 6". Cool-weather crop for best taste. Good moisture, good drainage, rich soil, sunny place

Capsicum annuum

sweet pepper, cayenne pepper, chili pepper

Start inside 3 months before last frost, with soil and air temperatures of 70-85F/21-31C to germinate, 80s better. Bottom heat quite helpful. Keep at same temperatures for optimum growth, until the third set of true leaves appear, then allow several weeks with night temperatures down to about 55-60F/12-15C, before returning to some 70F/21C. Pro-vide excellent light, high humidity and deep rich well-drained soil at all stages; soil should be kept both warm and moist

The ideal seedling has buds, but no open flowers, at the time of mov-ing it out into the garden, though even fruiting specimens may be trans-planted. Transplant at least 2 weeks after last frost. Nights must be warm; harden plants off gradually. Set 2" deeper than before, spacing 12" apart. Soil should contain adequate phosphorus and calcium, but hold back on nitrogen; provide ample water on at least a weekly basis. Stresses, especially dry spells, will produce hotter fruits, if fewer

Note that peppers are perennials, though frost tender. They may be moved indoors before the first autumn frost to continue producing, and can even be overwintered and moved back out in spring, though I prefer to restart from seed. Various hot peppers previously referred to as C. frutescens

Carica papaya

papaya

Seed sown in spring, 75-85F/24-30C; store-bought fruits may contain viable seed. Soaking for 24-48 hours can aid germination, which can be irregular. For a warm, sunny spot, rich and well-draining soil. Usu-ally plants are either male or female, and both must be present to produce fruit, though some dwarf cultivars produce male and female flowers, and can indeed be grown true from seed. These are suitable to pot culture, and can be grown indoors if given ample room, bright light

Carya illinoinensis

pecan

Sow seed immediately when ripe into a protected location, and should be given plenty of room. Seed may not grow true to type, however, so whip grafting onto seedling rootstock is commonly used to reproduce named cultivars. Fertile, deep, evenly moist soil, and sun to part shade. Zone 6-9

Cichorium endivia

endive, escarole

Sow seed every 4 weeks from early spring to end summer into their final locations. Some cultivars overwinter well from early autumn sowings in protected locations. Space 8" apart, in well-drained soil; somewhat shade-tolerant

Cichorium intybus

chicory, witloof, Belgian endive, radicchio

Cool-weather vegetable sown into neutral, well-drained soil, 60F/15C, spacing rows 12" and individual plants 6-8" apart. Full sun and cool, mild weather important. Best cultural conditions can vary significantly depending on cultivar; some are suitable for early spring planting, other frost-tolerant varieties are summer-sown and harvested in autumn. Hardy to zone 3

Italian chicory or radicchio, a subtype of C. intybus, can be sown throughout autumn and spring, and winter in warmer areas, as long as cool, mild weather prevails. Witloof or Belgian endive, another subtype, may be forced in a root cellar, in winter, 50-60F/10-15C

Citrullus lanatus

watermelon

Start indoors around last frost, individually in 4" pots, 70F/21C or up, provide bottom heat, and grow in very good light. Milder weather a must before hardening off; set out at least 2 weeks after last frost, when at least 4" in size. Supply with warmed water if needed, around base of plants. Need moist, consistently warm, well-draining ground; should be neutral to alkaline

When transplanting do not handle the tender roots, and set very gently into hills 6' apart, one to two plants per hill; thin to one when plants have 6 to 8 leaves. Transplant this once only, if started indoors, and not at all if started outdoors

Citrus aurantifolia

lime

Propagate from seed, semi-ripe cuttings or by grafting onto C. limon rootstock, see also Citrus paradisi, below. Well-drained acidic soil; provide very good light, water well and regularly, and provide slightly acidic, gritty soil. Limes tend to grow smaller and can produce fruit year round even if grown year-round, in a good-sized pot indoors

Citrus limon

lemon

Cultivars must be propagated by heel cuttings or grafting to remain true to type. Full sun, ample moisture, and well-draining, acidic soil. May be grown in pots, overwintered indoors; dwarf forms especially suited to this form of culture. Zone 10

Citrus paradisi

grapefruit

Supermarket fruit reproduces readily, sowing true from seed. Plant 1" apart, grow at 70-80F/21-27C, slightly acidic, peat-based, well-drained compost ideal. Can propagate by heel cuttings, air layering or grafting; bud union of grafted plant should be some 6" above soil. In cool cli-mates may be grown in pots, bringing indoors with cooler weather. Grow protected but in full sun, provide ample water, and fertilize regu-larly. Zone 9-10

Probably a hybrid, also referred to as Citrus x paradisi

Citrus reticulata

tangerine, mandarin orange

Dwarf varieties especially may be grown in a pot, indoors, much as the other Citrus species described here; cultural conditions and propaga-tion for both dwarf and normal forms are the same as for other Citrus species. Also known as C. nobilis

Citrus sinensis

sweet orange

Sows true from seed. Plant 1" apart, grow at 65-70F/18-21C. Propagate also by air layering or grafting, or from cuttings taken in mid to late summer. Set bud union of grafted plants 6" above soil level. Grows relatively well in clay soil though well-drained and slightly acidic soil preferred; in northern areas may be kept pot-bound and brought out in summer. Full sun, ample water. Zone 9-10

Claytonia perfoliata

miner's lettuce

Sow from last frost into mid-summer, 1/8" deep, every 1-2", thin to 4" apart, in most well-drained soils. Self-seeds very well and may be-come invasive. Sun to part shade. Also known as Montia perfoliata

Corylus species

hazelnut, filbert

Grown from seed sown in autumn, into protected location, or in spring after a few weeks of stratification. Also propagated by simple layering in summer, or by separating and relocating offsets. Sun to moderate shade, rich and well-draining soil. Zone 2-9

Corylus avellana, the European hazelnut, common hazelnut, filbert or cobnut, hardy zones 3-9. C. maxima, the giant filbert, hardy zone 4-9

Cucumis melo

muskmelon, cantaloupe

Sow outside onto well-drained, neutral, well-draining and nitrogen-rich soil, two weeks after last frost, 3-4 seeds every 18", and thin to one strong seedling once established. Or start indoors 2-4 weeks before last frost, 70-85F/21-30C; grow warm until transplanting two weeks af-ter last frost. Handle carefully and harden off gradually, setting 2 plants every 18", and later thinning to one plant per 18". Full sun, otherwise protected location

Keep well-watered until the last flowers fade, then reduce watering. Protect from cold; floating row covers may be helpful, as may cold frames or wall-o-water type protection: these may allow plants to be moved outside earlier around or even before the last frost date

Cucumis sativus

cucumbers

Sow indoors 4 weeks before last frost, ideally in biodegradable pots. Set out 2 weeks after last frost at the four-leaf stage. Alternatively, sow outside around last frost. Set or sow into small gently-sloping mounds about 3' apart, 4 plants each, later thin to 2, by pinching out the excess. Soil should be fertile, well-draining, and be kept moist. Temperature 60-95F/15-35C ideal, providing higher temperatures if possible, for both growth and germination

Does not do well with transplanting: transplant only those that were started indoors, once only. Protect with frost

Cucurbita maxima

moschata, pepo squash

Soak seed overnight to break dormancy. Sow indoors 1 week before last frost, may be presprouted before planting. Set out 2 weeks after last frost, 4 plants per raised mound, spaced 3' apart, 6' for vining species. Transplant indoor starts very gently, once only. Or sow outside around last frost in their place of eventual growth: squash resents disturbance. Thin to 1-2 plants per mound depending on size of cultivar. Very fertile well-drained soil of the essence. Temperatures of 70-95F/ 21-35C ideal

Cucurbita pepo

pumpkin

Sow indoors 1 week before last frost, and set out 2 weeks after last frost. Sow outside around last frost, in mounds 6' apart. Thin to one plant per mound. Provide fertile well-drained soil, constant moisture, and temperatures of 70-95F/21-35C. Does not enjoy transplanting: transplant those that were started indoors that one time only

Cydonia oblonga

quince

Sow seed when collected in autumn or stratify 4 weeks before planting out-side in spring. Grow cultivars from cuttings taken summer through late autumn, latter grown in cold frame. Simple layering from mid-spring to early summer, or ring-barking are also used, but take time; may be whip-grafted onto generic C. oblonga rootstock. Sun, moist, rich and well-drained soil ideal, though tolerates most soils. Grown as bonsai. Zone 5-9

Cynara scolymus

globe artichoke

Start seed indoors 2 months before last frost; may scarify in fridge 2 weeks prior to sowing 1/2" deep, warm, good light. Harden off and set out after last frost date, spacing plants 2' apart. Set in very rich well-draining soil, good sun. Cool temperatures 55-65F/13-18C ideal for growth; tolerates some frost. Divide healthy, high-yielding plants in spring using sharp spade, each section with a few healthy shoots and good healthy root system

Mulch heavily with straw to overwinter, or dig the plants and store in a cool basement prior to replanting the next year. May be grown from purchased plants or bare-root specimens. Hardy to zone 7

Cyphomandra betacea

tamarillo, tree tomato

Grow from softwood cuttings or seed sown shallowly at 70-85F/21-30C in spring; start under cover then harden off as seedlings mature, and set out. Water regularly, and provide very good light, sheltered location, and well-draining fertile soil. Zone 10

Daucus carota

carrots

Sow sparingly, outside, as soon as the ground can be worked, i.e. some 6 weeks before last frost, and again at 2-4 weeks intervals. Sow 1/4" down, in deep, loose, well-draining, moist soil, and water slowly, carefully to prevent soil from crusting. Covering the soil with clear plas-tic until seedlings emerge can also prevent soil crusting, as well as keep it warm to promote germination

Sow deeper if the weather is hot, to prevent seeds from toasting, up to 1" deep. Thin to 2-4" when soil is damp. A cool-season crop, should be sown in autumn or winter in very warm areas

Diospyros virginiana

persimmon

May be sown immediately when ripe, 80F/27C, or into a protected loca-tion at this same time, or sow seed in spring after a period of stratifica-tion. Grow in rich, well-drained soil, though many soils are tolerated, and adequate room to grow. Self-fertile, but best if allowed to cross-pollinate. Specific cultivars may be whip grafted onto generic D. virginiana rootstock

Eruca vesicaria sativa

arugula, roquette, rucola

Sow outside onto moist soil, every few weeks, mid-spring to autumn, 1" apart with rows some 18" apart; autumn-sown seed overwinters in most areas. Cool weather ideal. Larger plants may be spaced 4-6" apart

Feijoa sellowiana

pineapple guava

Start from seed, early spring, 55-60F/13-15C; rinse seed several times then sow shallowly. Sun to some shade, sheltered spot. Tolerates many soils and dry conditions; light and well-draining soil preferred. Grow also from heel cuttings taken in summer. More than one plant required to produce fruit. Zone 9-10

Fortunella species

kumquat

Seed is sown in spring, or immediately when ripe. May also be grown from cuttings, much as Citrus species. Very good light; very suitable as container plants

Fragaria x ananassa

strawberry

Most strawberries are grown from purchased specimens; look for plants with clean pale roots. Plant these immediately in early spring or keep moist, cool and dark, in fridge or basement. Set plants deep enough that the middle of the plant's crown is level with well-drained, fertile, weed-free soil; raised beds in full sun are ideal. Zone 3-9

When planting, spread roots gently outwards, without bending them. Set plants 12" apart, spacing rows every 1 1/2' for day-neutrals and 2' for June-bearers, double this figure if plants in each row are allowed to runner

New plantlets on runners may be guided to a new location or be pro-tected during the winter, severed from the parent and transplanted in spring. Note that autumn transplanting is becoming more common, and is often quite successful

Strawberries, typically day-neutral varieties, may be started from seed, sown two-three months before last frost, on soil surface, under plastic or glass. Needs lower temperatures and light to germinate; keep moist, and uncover with germination. Drop temperature slightly to 55-60F/12-15C; feed with compost tea at 1 month. Harden off when outside temperature 55F/12C

In hot climes these cool weather plants are grown, as annuals, in the autumn and picked in winter. In all cases, check that your variety is appro-priate to your local climate

Glycine max

soybean

Sow seed 1" deep, deeper if sown in much warmer weather, 2" apart, rows spaced 18", starting 1 week after last frost date; no thinning is necessary. Well-drained, neutral soil, though heavier clay soils are tolerated, and even moisture. Treat the seed with a legume inoculant to increase yields, as well as the amount of nitrogen fixed into the soil by the growing soybeans

Humulus lupulus

hop

Propagated from root cuttings; use cuttings from female plants if culti-vated for flowers. 6-8" cuttings each with a bud or two may be taken from parent root in early spring, every three or so years. Set rhizomes about 4 inches deep, with buds pointing up, spaced 2-3'. Zone 4-9

Grow in full sun to part shade, loose, rich, well-drained soil, and pro-vide ample water, at least several times per week. Thin to 2 shoots per rhizome at an early stage. Mulch during summer to help retain mois-ture, and feed with compost at least yearly

Stem cuttings may also be taken and rooted, taken from the first few side shoots when these have 3 pairs of leaves, removing the lower leaves, and rooting in sterile medium. Simple layering may be used. Finally, may be propagated from seed sown 1/4" deep, though results are indeterminate and may not resemble the parent plant

Perennial, does well most climates. Often attains 40' in height, and gets quite heavy: provide adequate support. Hops naturally wrap clockwise, counterclockwise in the Southern hemisphere, and should be trained in those directions. Alternatively, it may be allowed to sprawl, as ground cover

Finally, hops may be started from seed, sown 1/4" deep, at 70-75F/21-24C; note that the resultant hop will differ from its parents

Ipomoea batatas

sweet potato

Soak seed in lukewarm water, several hours, then sow at 75F/24C or above, into well-drained rich soil, slightly acidic, ample nitrogen. Water regularly, full sun. Should also be grown at 75F/24C or above, and as such, start indoors and grow under glass or row covers in cool climes; transplant seedlings when the weather has consistently warmed up

May also be started from tubers set 2" deep, 12" apart, in rows 24" apart, or grow from stem cuttings taken in summer. Perennial, usually grown as annual

Juglans regia

English walnut, Persian walnut

Sow seed just covered in autumn, into a sheltered area; protect from squir-rels and the like. Seeds may also be overwintered cool and very lightly moistened in sand or peat, for sowing the next spring. A period of stratification may be helpful. Germination is irregular; light aids sprouting. Well-draining, very fertile soil. Full sun

Cultivars may be whip grafted, also in spring, usually onto Juglans nigra seedling rootstock. Can adversely affect the growth of neighbour-ing plants. Zone 5-9

Lactuca sativa

lettuce

Surface-sow leaf lettuce to rows 1' apart, thin plants to 6", at 4-week intervals starting from 4 weeks prior to last frost into mid-summer. Start head lettuce indoors 6 weeks before last frost and transplant on expected date of last frost, thin to 12" apart. Soil and air temperature <70F/21C ideal, with cooler nights, rich and well-drained soil. Both types need light to germinate

Seeds may be hard to germinate in warmer weather: refrigerate head lettuce seed overnight, leaf types a week, and use older seed, to enhance germination. Keep moist

May be sown in autumn just before first new frost, for spring crop. Can sow head lettuce outside into early summer; leaf lettuce up to end July in cooler areas, for later yields of both. Thin to or transplant 12" apart, during the coolest part of day, without disturbing the roots. Water fre-quently, and keep in partial shade. Mulch to keep temperatures down

Lepidium sativum

cress

Sow shallowly every 2 weeks from early spring to early autumn, 10 seeds per inch; dark may aid germination. May also be grown indoors throughout the year. Protect from full sun in warm summers, as this salad vegetable fares best in cool conditions

Lycopersicon esculentum

tomato

Sow shallowly in loose, peaty compost, 6 weeks before last expected frost, 70-85F/21-31C, drop immediately to 60-75F/15-24C when germi-nated. Needs dark to sprout. Sow 1-2 per 2" pot, thin to one healthy seedling. Keep at room temperature after germination, and provide 12-16 hours of bright light per day. Prick out when 2 sets of true leaves have developed; place in light and warm area. Stroke gently, daily, for sturdier plants, and do not overwater

Plant out when 8" or taller, at least 2 weeks after last frost, ideally when it is consistently warmer outside. Harden off over 10 days. Tomatoes must be protected from late frosts, or early ones in autumn. Start outside under glass if cold temperatures a problem, or use cloches or 'water teepees' to keep seedlings warm, even start them early; the latter can speed up tomato production by some 6 weeks.

Plant deep, 2/3 to 3/4 their height, for better root systems and bigger yields, unless the soil is still cold in early spring. Can bury stems on an angle close to horizontal, closer to the warmer soil surface, bending stem upward, and staking it into position. Remove those leaves that would be buried

Set plants 3' apart, into full sun. Soil is preferably slightly acidic, rich in compost and calcium, well-draining. Don't fertilize with nitrogen; add potash and phosphorus if deficient. Mulch when warmer

Suckers root well: snap these off and bury 2/3", keep wet until rooted. Use for a second, late harvest or to overwinter a favorite plant by taking cuttings again in spring

Seeds may be saved and used for next year's harvest: even if picked prematurely, if ripened indoors to an even orange or red, can be used for seed

Malus species

apple, crab apple

Sow immediately upon harvesting, or soak overnight then stratify 12 weeks, and sow in cooler weather, 3" apart, just covered. Needs light to germinate; grow in full sun to part shade, and well-drained, moist soil. Benefits from mulching with compost. Used as bonsai. Some apples hardy to zone 3, some crabapples to zone 2; most grow comfortably zones 5-8

Tourniquet-style air-layering is slow but effective, and produces a specimen true to type, as does whip grafting done in winter. Plant newly-acquired specimens in early spring, setting grafted plants with bud union at least 2" above soil level, to prevent scion from rooting directly

Manihot esculenta

cassava, tapioca, manioc

Grow from softwood stem tip cuttings in summer, or from 4" stem cuttings, bottom heat may be helpful. Good light to part shade, should be watered regularly, can be grown as an indoor ornamental

Mespilus germanica

medlar

Seed sown when ripe into a protected location; germination may re-

quire a double dormancy, and can be slow and irregular. Sunny spot, moderate to rich well-drained soil; some shade may be tolerated. Self-fertile. Propagate also by air layering or simple layering in summer. Finally, may be whip grafted onto Pyrus communis rootstock. Zone 5-9

Morus species

mulberry

Stratified seed sown in spring, or sow immediately when ripe, onto soil surface as light is needed for germination. Full sun, ensure constant supply of moisture, slightly acidic soil. Grown also from heel cuttings taken in spring or autumn, or may be layered in summer. Self-fertile. Morus alba, the white mulberry, is the hardier species, zone 5-9; Morus nigra, black mulberry, grows in zone 7-10

Musa species

banana

Soak seed at least 24 hours, up to 3 days, then sprout in moist sand, 70-75F/21-24C, and check frequently for root or shoot development. Roots are hairy and slender, shoots are smooth and fat. Plant up when sprouted, with seed immediately below soil surface. Some cultivars, i.e. M. x paradisiaca Dwarf Cavendish, can produce fruit even if grown pot-bound and indoors year-round

Suckers a few inches long may be split from the main stem and potted, each with an adequate root supply. Divide in spring, or grow from dormant cuttings taken in the autumn, rooted indoors. Grow in good light to full sun, fertile and well-draining soil. Zone 9-10

Nasturtium officinale

watercress

Sow seed 1" apart, 1/4" deep, thin to 4" apart; keep very moist at all times; may tolerate a few inches of water overhead. Especially suited to cool, running water. Or grow from stem cuttings rooted in water. Rich organic, wet and neutral soil ideal. May be grown in pots, good light, if kept very wet

Also known as Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum

Olea europaea

olive

Full sun and rich soil, should be very well-draining. Sow seed in autumn, 1/4" deep, germination erratic, or start in spring. Can also be started from semi-hard heel cuttings in summer. Grown as indoors bonsai, very good light. Zone 9-10

Opuntia ficus-indica

prickly pear, Indian fig

Excellent drainage required, soil ideally rich in organic material, ample sun, keep dry in winter. Propagated as other Opuntias. Zone 10

Passiflora caerulea

Passion flower

Soak seeds overnight, then sow 1/4" deep, 70-85F/21-31C, or sow immediately when fresh. Very irregular germination. Transplant when 10" tall. Softwood and semi-ripe cuttings of 6" length are rooted best with bottom heat. Well-drained, moist soil, quite tolerant of alkaline conditions. Zone 8-10

Other Passiflora species, including P. incarnata and P. ligularis, share the same cultural conditions. P. incarnata is equally suited to indoor pot culture, hardy in zone 10 though it may be tried with some success in colder areas; P. ligularis, or sweet granadilla, is hardy to zone 10

Pastinaca sativa

parsnip

Sow in autumn just before first frost, or, outside, 1 month before last frost. Sow thickly: germination is never very good. Keep moist, and set no deeper than 1/2", in deep, loose, well-drained and fertile soil, neutral to slightly acidic. Thin to 6"; do not transplant. Water fairly frequently. Seed is very cold-tolerant but almost 0% germinates above 90F/34C. Fresh seed ideal; soaking several hours can aid germination. Zone 3-9

Persea americana

avocado, avocado pear, alligator pear

Soak in hot 110-130F/40-50C water for 30 minutes, then plant seed directly into moist soil, with tapered end pointing up and just covered, grow at 70F/21C. Cut back at about 6" tall. Grow in good indirect light, same temperatures, well-draining, slightly acidic soil, ample moisture

Plants grown from seed may not grow true to type; specific cultivars may be propagated by grafting

Phaseolus lunatus

lima bean, butter bean

Seed bush varieties 4-6" apart, 1" deep, and in rows some 24" apart, at least 4 weeks after last frost, when soil has warmed to some 75F/24C; does not do well in cool growing season. Pole lima beans are sown at the same time, but in small hills, 5 beans around a central pole; thin to the three most vigorous seedlings. Well-draining, slightly acidic soil. In colder climates, grow in full sun, and protect with row covers during colder seasons

Phaseolus vulgaris

bush bean, pole or runner bean, string bean

Sow all beans after last expected frost, and protect should frost occur. Use an inoculant, as described in Green Manures section. Pre-soak 1 hour, then sow bush or dwarf types 1" deep and 8" apart, or 4" apart in rows spaced 18". Optimum temperature 60-75F/15-24C, ample sun. Beans resent transplantation, which should be done early on a cool damp day. Rich soil with good drainage ideal for all beans

Pole beans like it cool: sow early in spring, again in summer in war-mer areas, for autumn crop, last sowing 3 months before first frost. Plant 5 or 6 seeds and thin to 4 per pole, poles about 12" apart, same depth as bush beans

Dwarf beans hate cold wet soil: sow with 50F/10C soil temperature or up, after frost danger has passed, 8" apart, and continue every few weeks until 2 months before first expected frost

Phoenix dactylifera

date palm

Sow seed in spring, 75F/24C or up; seed obtained from unpitted, store-bought dates may be viable. Good, well-drained soil and good light to some shade. Good-sized offsets may be removed and repotted, if produced. May be grown indoors as a pot plant. Minimum winter temper-ature of 50F/10C required; zone 10

Physalis ixocarpa

tomatillo

Start indoors 6 weeks before last frost, 1/4" deep, 70-80F/21-27C, and transplant out 2 weeks after last frost, spacing 12-18" apart, in fertile, well-draining soil and very good light

Pisum sativum

pea

May be sown in autumn just before last frost, provided soil stays dry over winter, or sow outside 1 month before last frost, and on till late spring. Colder temperatures provide best germination; grows well at cooler temperatures. Plant 2" apart, 1" deep, in rows 2' apart, or in clumps with plants spaced 3" apart, in well-drained soil. Water well starting with flowering; full sun to light shade. Legume inoculants can increase growth and crop yields

Podophyllum peltatum

mayapple

Stratify seed 4 weeks before sowing just covered into fertile soil, 55-60F/13-15F; provide even moisture, part shade; does well in acidic soil. Or sow seed immediately when ripe in autumn. Sprouting is irregular. Di-vided early in spring. Can serve as ground cover for dappled woods, where it can be invasive. Hardy to zone 3

Prunus amygdalus

almond

Sow stratified seed in spring, 1/16" deep, or sow outside in a protected spot. Light needed for germination, which is irregular. Toasted store-bought seed will not germinate. Well-drained, fertile soil, protected location, and full sun. Somewhat drought-tolerant

Cultivars may be whip grafted or chip-budded onto an appropriate root-stock, i.e. almond or peach. As with most fruit trees, a colder period is required each year for fruit set, though most prefer frost-free winters

Also known as Prunus dulcis. Partly self-fertile; benefits from cross-pollination. Zone 6-9, though some cultivars are hardy into zone 5

Prunus armeniaca

apricot

Sunny, protected spot, kept fairly dry, typically grown and propagated as plum, below. Note however that individual forms may vary widely on their cultural requirements. Some apricots are self-fertile; many need at least two plants for cross-pollination. A cool-weather dormant period of at least 350 hours under 45F/7C, and possibly much longer, is required

Prunus persica

peach, nectarine

Propagate as plum, below. Well-drained, fertile, slightly acidic soil ideal, as is an even supply of moisture and full sun; clay soils may be tolerated relatively well. Most are self-fertile. Hardy zones 6-9

Prunus species

plum, damson

Soak seed, stratify 4 months, and sow 4" apart early in spring, just covered, well-drained soil essential. Needs light to germinate. If sprouts poorly, try planting and keeping seed warm for 2 weeks before stratifi-cation, or simply sow early in autumn, ideally into a cold frame for protection. Purchased specimens may be planted in early spring or autumn, giving roots plenty of room. Many forms are self-fertile, some self-sterile

True to type only if propagated by softwood cuttings, air-layering, or by grafting: suited to side-veneer or whip grafting. Ring-bark or tourniquet air-layering works but slow. Suitable for bonsai. Some plums hardy to zone 2; protect young plants during winter

Prunus species

cherry

Sour cherries, P. cerasus, are typically hardy to zone 3; sweet cherries, P. avium, perform inconsistently above zone 6, and are easily frost-damaged. Sour cherries also require longer periods of cold in winter, in order to set fruit. P. tomentosa, the Nanking cherry or bush cherry, is hardy to zone 2, and also produces sweet fruit. Propagation and cultur-al conditions are as for plum, etc. described above

Note that sour cherries are self-pollinating; sweet and Nanking cherries often are not

Punica granatum

pomegranate

Soak seed, then sow 70F/21C, spring or summer. Supermarket fruit may be used for seed: clean and dry then sow. Or propagate by ring-bark or tourniquet air layering early spring, moderately slow, or from semi-hard heel cuttings. Hot dry summers needed for best fruit. Grows indoors, keep good light, warm, well-drained soil, or grow out-side in dry, hot climates, in full sun. Dwarf varieties especially suited to indoor culture. Used as bonsai. Zone 8-10

Pyrus species

pear

Seed benefits from stratification, or sow in autumn, in colder areas in cold frame for protection, some 3" apart. Propagation by ring-bark or tourni-quet air-layering is slow. Set grafted specimens with bud union at least 2" above soil level, to prevent scion from rooting directly; whip-grafting is done in early spring

Provide deep, moist, slightly acidic soil, in a warm, sunny and protected spot. Need at least two compatible trees for proper cross-pollination; a variable minimum chilling period required to produce fruit. Suitable for bonsai. Zone 3-8

Raphanus sativus

radish

Spring radishes are sown outside from first thaw on, 1/4" deep, or 1/2" deep for large types, small amounts at a time. Keep moist, cool weath-er ideal. Continue to sow until autumn, small sowings several weeks apart, for steady supply

Start winter radishes in mid-summer, sow into soil worked about 2' deep, with last sowing 2 1/2 months before first expected frost; may be sown into winter in warm areas. Space 2", rows 1' apart. Germinates well above 55F/12C

Rheum x cultorum

rhubarb

A plant for cooler climates, well-drained and very compost-rich soil, and a sunny spot. Reproduce from crowns, planted 3' apart; do not allow to dry out. Cover 1" soil and firm down; water well. Divide crowns in autumn after leaves have died, with a sharp spade

If started from seed, will not be identical to parent plant, is more likely to go to seed, probably less suitable for eating. Sow 1 month before

last frost, 2" apart, 1/4" deep. Transplant to 1' apart. In very warm cli-mates, start rhubarb from seed each year in early autumn, and set out 8 weeks later; grow as above, and harvest winter and spring

Also known as R. rhabarbarum, R. rhaponticum

Ribes species

currant

Grow in rich, well-drained soil, full sun to some shade; most benefit from some sun protection in hot climates; space plants 5-6' apart. Consistent moisture important. Grow from hardwood cuttings in autumn, ideally in a protected spot or cold frame. Most are self-fertile, though cross-pollination can be helpful. Zone 3-5

Ribes rubrum and R. sativum are the popular red, and common or white currant, respectively. Less well-known but hardier are R. alpinum, the alpine or mountain currant, and R. odoratum, or buffalo or golden currant, both hardy to zone 2

Ribes nigrum

blackcurrant

Ribes species

gooseberry

Grow and propagate as currant, above. Ribes uva-crispa, the common or European gooseberry, is easiest propagated by layering. R. hirtellum is the hardier American gooseberry, and grows easily from layerings or hardwood cuttings taken in autumn. Zones 3-6

Rubus caesius

dewberry

Prefers the same conditions as Rubus idaeus; propagated especially by tip layering

Rubus fruticosus

blackberry

 

R. fruticosus refers to a collection over hundreds of blackberry species; black raspberries, however, are not included, but autumn under R. occidentalis. Prefers well-drained, fertile moist soil that is somewhat acidic. Grown from seed, by division, or from suckers as R. idaeus; bare root specimens planted ideally in autumn or early spring. Zone 3-9

Rubus idaeus

garden raspberry

 

Sow immediately when fruits ripen, or stratify 3 months in fridge. Tip layer in late summer; or propagate by simple layering. Remove and replant new plantlets in spring; place in 6" hole and fill half way, contin-uing to fill during growing season. Rich soil should be well-drained, very slightly acidic is ideal; full sun and sheltered location appreciated. Difficult to propagate from cuttings; take tip cuttings in spring. Zone 2-9

Remove and plant up healthy suckers in late autumn, when shoots are dor-mant. These are biennial for red and yellow raspberries, although the original plant is perennial. Purchased plants should be planted very early in spring, and set 2" deeper than previously

Rubus occidentalis

North American black raspberry

Propagate by tip or simple layering as with raspberry. For this species and purple raspberries, suckers may be removed and planted in autumn, when shoots are dormant. Hardwood stem cuttings may be attempted but are far less reliable. Requirements are the same as for raspberry

Scorzonera hispanica

mock oyster, scorzonera

Sow outdoors, throughout spring, 1/2" deep in deep, loose, well-drain-ing and fertile soil, rows spaced 8-12" apart. A hardy perennial, it can also be sown in autumn just before first frost. Thin to 6"; do not transplant. Water regularly, and well

Solanum melongena

aubergine, eggplant

May be started indoors some 4 weeks before last frost, transplanted 4 weeks after last frost, when weather is consistently warm; 75-90F/24-32C ideal for germination and growth. Rich, deep, well-drained soil required. Harden off gradually, protect from cold, grow 18" apart, spacing rows every 2'. High humidity ideal

Solanum tuberosum

potato

Seed is unlikely to produce good tubers, but may be started in early spring, optimal temperature 68F/20C, or started inside earlier on much like their tomato cousins. Reproduce any good-sized tubers, the next year. Note that purchased tubers, sometimes referred to as "seed", should always be certified virus free

Note that R. nigrum, the black currant, may not be grown in parts of the U.S., as it is an alternate host for a white pine disease. It requires ample space, up to 8' in all directions

Plant tubers 3 weeks before last frost. If 2" in diameter, plant whole, if much larger, cut cleanly into sections with 2-3 eyes each, and allow to callus for several days. Set 6" deep, as many eyes as possible facing upward, and cover with 2" soil. Space 2-3' apart, depending on cultivar. As plants grow, fill in gradually with loose soil; mound up around stem several inches after hole finally filled. This cool-season crop requires a longer growing season and will not tolerate any frost. Prefers acidic soil, good amount water

Spinacia oleracea

spinach

May be sown in autumn just before the first frost for earliest spring crops, or outside 1 month before the last frost, for spring germination. Sow 1/2" deep or less, thin to 6" apart, rows 12" apart, well-draining rich soil. Germinates best below 60F/15C, grows best below 65F/18C. Steady moisture required

Sow in mid to late summer for late crop that year, up to 2 months before first expected frost. Will last into the snowy season. Sprout late spinach in the fridge, kept damp for about a week, if difficult to germinate in summer temperatures

Vaccinium species

blueberry

Stratify seed 2-3 months, or sow in autumn. New plantlets are produced on the end of spreading rhizomes; layering may be used to grow some species, as may cuttings taken in late summer. Appreciates moist, well-draining, acidic soil of pH 4.5 to 5.5, likes to be well-mulched. Two or more types are required to fertilize and set fruit. Plant purchased specimens spring and autumn. Full sun to some shade. Zones 2-9

Vaccinium angustifolium, lowbush blueberry, is hardy to zones 2-6. V. corymbosum, the swamp or highbush blueberry, is hardy zone 3-8, though some protection can be required in the colder parts of its range, and some cultivars are not suitable for the warmer zones

Vaccinium ashei, the rabbit-eye blueberry, though good for warmer climates, needs a few cold weeks per year to produce fruit. Tolerates somewhat drier conditions, better for more neutral soils. Zone 7-9

Vaccinium macrocarpon

cranberry

Sunny spot, fertile and very acidic soil of pH 4 to 5, and very consistent moisture required. Grow from seed, by layering, division, or from cuttings as blueberry, above. Fully self-fertile. Zone 3-8

Vaccinium vitisidaea, the mountain cranberry or lingonberry, shares the same conditions, and is hardy to zone 1. Spacing plants 1' apart. While self-fertile, cross-pollination can increase fruit set

Valerianella locusta

corn salad, lamb's lettuce, nüsslisalat, mâche nusslisalatmache lambs lettuce

Cool weather crop sown 1.5-2" apart in early spring, or can overwinter if sown in mid-autumn, especially in milder climates; set rows 18" apart, and thin to 4" apart. Withstands some frost, which actually improves the flavour. Tolerates most soils

Viburnum trilobum

highbush cranberry

Start from seed sown when fresh into a protected location, or may be grown from cuttings taken throughout growing season and set into a protected location; bottom heat aids rooting. Sun to some shade, keep evenly moist, deeply well-draining soil. Zone 2-7

Vicia faba

broad bean, fava bean

Seed as soon as soil can be worked in spring, 1" deep, 6" apart, rows 18" apart. May be sown in autumn in zone 10; some types sown in late autumn will overwinter well even into zone 8. Fertile and well-drained soil ideal. Provide ample water. Does best in cooler temperate climates, with temperatures of 65F/18C or less

Vitis species

grape

Seed from fruit is washed, dried overnight, germinated in dark, sown 2 1/2" apart. Stratify older seed. Cut back to 2" when four times that height. Plant purchased specimens in spring while still dormant, into deep and well-drained soil. Tourniquet air-layering takes 2-3 months. Can be used as bonsai. Hardy to zone 3

Green cuttings taken in spring, root easily; remove or shorten large leaves. Or take in autumn immediately after leaves have dropped. Take two or three buds, cut immediately below bottom bud, 1" above the top one; bottom heat helpful. Note that V. vinifera, the European wine grape, doesn't do well in North America unless grafted onto New World root-stock. Keep bud union 2" or more above soil level. Young plants need moisture, warmth

Hardwood cuttings taken after leaf drop may also be overwintered in fridge or cold frame in moist peat moss, until ready to plant early spring, or planted directly into the cold frame if still possible

Zea mays

corn

Sow singly in small, ideally biodegradable pots in spring, 65-75F/18-24C, 4 weeks before last frost. Transplant 2 weeks after last frost or later, up to early summer, as it likes warmer soil. Set rows 3' apart, and transplant only this one time. Outside, sow from last frost date, 1/2" deep, 4" apart, rows spaced 3', direct to their final location. May start 2 weeks earlier under glass or plastic.

Thin later to 10-12" apart, more for some varieties, and water very regularly, full sun, very well-draining soil.

Extra-sweet corn is best planted one month into the growing season. Most forms of corn require long growing season, 70 days or more in length, though some are rated at 55 days or less

 

Fruits and Vegetables indexed elsewhere

Plants of Home and Garden
Coffea arabica	coffee
Colocasia esculenta	taro root
Dolichos lablab	hyacinth bean
Rosa	rose
Tropaeolum majus	nasturtium
Trees & Shrubs
Amelanchier species	juneberry, serviceberry
Castanea sativa	chestnut, European chestnut
Crataegus	hawthorn
Elaeagnus angustifolia	Russian olive
Fagus species	beech
Juglans species	walnut, butternut
Macadamia species	macadamia nut
Malus species	crabapple
Pinus species	pine
Sambucus species	elderberry
Cacti & Succulents
Carpobrotus edulis	Hottentot fig
Herbs
Allium sativum	garlic
Allium schoenoprasum	chives
Foeniculum vulgare	fennel
Petroselinum crispum	parsley
Taraxacum officinale	dandelion