Shaping the Land

Plan your approach. Beware importing organic matter from outside the bioregion of your local area. Such carries the risk of upsetting the balance of your garden, either aesthetically or ecologically.

First steps

By the end of a year, you should have an idea of any problems in your garden.. If there's a feature that jam, in an aesthetic or practical sense, you'll probably have found it. This is a good starting point.

Begin by studying your profile plans, shade maps, temperature logs, and other first-year records, to predict what the effect of changing things might be. At the same time, also pick out other specific areas, such as wet or parched patches, frost pockets, and sun traps, and decide whether you want to make constructive use of them.

Remember: unless you feel positively antagonistic toward a particular feature, it's generally better to use it rather than oblitreate it; plans have a way of changing as one goes along, and it's good keep variety.

Trees

Always consider large trees carefully to see whether they need to be lopped, pollarded, or coppiced, rather than felled—regard felling trees as a last resort.

When deciding what to do with young trees, remember that self-sown saplings generally grow into stronger and more soundly rooted trees than do transplanted trees. On the other hand, you should guard against being too soft-hearted. It's easier to remove an unwanted tree when it's small, and when your garden is still rough, than when it is fully grown.

When in doubt, leave the possible survivors until last. When everything definitely unwanted is cleared, it is easier to assess the worth of what remains.
Moving trees

Transplanting young trees is not difficult, so long as you remember basic principles.

The younger the tree is, the better are the chances of success. Don't move a tree that's already stressed, especially by drought. If it's necessary to prune a tree beforehand—to make it easier to handle, for example—do so well in advance, never at the same time as transplanting. Treat a transplanted tree as you would a "bare-rooted" one; this means moving it after leaf fall but, if possible, before the soil has become cold (if this proves impossible, a winter move may be successful for deciduous trees, but not for evergreens—leave them until early spring).

Prepare the planting hole beforehand, so that the roots aren't exposed for long, and be prepared to dig a very deep and wide hole to get the tree out, especially if it's self-seeded.

The anchor roots give stability. If you have to cut them, provide some mechanical assistance to support the tree in its new position. The small, rubbery feeder roots supply the tree with water and nutrients. These are apt to spread widely, and are easily stripped off if the tree is pulled. So dig the tree up carefully; take care to preserve the feeder roots.

Once you have some idea of how widely the roots spread, prepare the planting hole accordingly. Proceed from here as outlined on ***.

Mature trees

Moving a mature tree is difficult, so don't undertake the task lightly.

If the tree is so big that you need expert assistance to fell it, then it's too big to move. Be prepared for failure even with smaller trees. You'll need a combination of patience, common sense, and know-how, together with ingenuity and determination.
Tackle the job in stages, beginning in the early autumn as soon as possible after leaf fall.

First, prune the tree as much as you dare; this is largely a matter of judgement: cutting away too much can kill the tree, but doing too little can reduce the chances of success and make the task needlessly arduous.

Study the tree to see where (and whether) new growth might arise after trimming, and where old growth could be usefully removed (think about the effect on the final shape); consider pollarding the tree, which (depending on the species) might increase the chances of success.

Second, because the existing root system will be extensive and you want to encourage new feeder roots at the periphery of the root system, prepare the tree's roots by careful root pruning. Mark a ring around the trunk, roughly the same distance from the bole as the branches extend sideways (use judgement if you've pollarded it), and use this as the outer limit of a 2 ft (60 cm) wide trench all around the tree.

You can either dig the entire trench in one go, or two parts –one half in one year and the other half in the next. The object is to prune the main root structure while doing as little damage as possible to the feeder roots.

Begin your trench vertically, then undercut toward the central trunk. Check that each severed root is cleanly trimmed before backfilling the trench with loamy, compost-rich soil. If you feel the tree might be unstable, tether it firmly with guy ropes and leave until next leaf fall.

By this time, the severed roots should have grown new feeders into the soft compost. If you only did half the previous year, finish the trench now. If the entire trench has been in place for a year, assemble whatever lifting gear you have, and as many willing hands and strong backs as you can muster.

Before you start, mark a compass point on the trunk. When you relocate the tree, you should give it the same aspect that it grew up with. The best time to make the move is just before sundown. A good way to spend removal day is to water the trench-soil several times, while making final preparations to the new planting hole.

Working gently around the tender new roots, loosen the tree from its bed of soft soil. If any large roots remain intact, sever them cleanly. Wrap the tree's roots carefully in sacking cloth before moving it, to retain as much soil and moisture a possible and to protect the roots from damage.

Once your tree is in its new hole, the right way round, firmly backfilled, and well watered, anchor it as securely as possible; do so with guy ropes. The higher up the trunk they are attached, and the wider their ground span, the more stable your tree will be. Fix each guy with a long, stout stake. Mulch thickly and thoroughly over the disturbed ground.

Clearing ground

When clearing or weeding a patch of ground, consider what use you might be able to make of the organic material you're removing. Unless it's diseased, nearly everything that grows has some use, and some common weeds are far too good to waste. If in doubt, treat topsoil and subsoil separately; this way you can use subsoil to build a new mound, and topsoil to clothe it or to line a new hollow.

Improving a slope

A slope of 45° or less can usually be stabilized by the roots of well chosen vegetation, such as grasses. If the soil is sandy, heavy rainfall causes erosion, or if the slope is greater than 45°, you might need to amend the slope by stepping it. A series of low retainers helps stabilize and reduce the steepness of the slope.

Swale and bern

Sloping ground can shed rain water too quickly, wasting it or leading to erosion. Instead of retainers, you can use the bump-and-hollow technique to create a series of linear depressions; these which will hold water to give it time to seep in (see ***).

The technique can also be used on level ground in order to channel rain water. Even where drainage isn't a priority, you can use the technique—to create different conditions for planting into the dry bern and the moister swale, for example, with a free-draining slope between; this can be useful when you want all your herbs in one spot, for instance.

Terracing

A more drastic procedure, and one that can also be used to create level beds on a sloping site, is to turn the slope into horizontal terraces. If the steps aren't too big—less than 4.5 ft (1.4 m)—you can tackle this job yourself. Taller steps usually need expert help.

The standard method for terracing is termed cut and fill. First remove all the topsoil from the whole of the area you wish to alter; store it separately (this is easy to say but arduous to do—10 m³ weighs more than 1 tonne). Next, build a retaining wall (a little higher than the intended height of the terrace) at the base of the slope.

Next, working with the subsoil, cut away a wedge at a time and turn it over to form the terrace below. Build the next retaining wall after the wedge is removed and before the next is deposited. Finally, cover each terrace with the reserved topsoil.

With careful planning, you can constrict swales and berns to make the most of all their benefits. Swales and berns pooling water, enabling it to penetrate sloping or dry soil. Remember, however, that a swale can cause salinity; you should therefore establish any long-lived plantings on the bern; here they will also serve to shade the swale and increase its effectiveness.

Terracing a steeply sloping plot entails heavy digging and being systematic. Begin by building a retaining wall at the bottom of the slope and work upward, shaping with subsoil and topping off with reserved topsoil.

Treat a shallower slope more informally, by pegging a single run of boards around contour lines. See *** for examples of walls and risers that could serve for a variety of situations, slopes, and soils.

Retainers

Choose materials for building retaining structures with care. They remain exposed, and are important visual features.

Prefer natural materials, wood or stone; but well chosen bricks (especially old ones) will also do. If you must use reconstituted stone or concrete, improve it by painting with an organic mixture—cow dung and water, or sour milk, for example—to encourage the growth of lichens.

Prefer stone that occurs naturally in your region. It will fit into your landscape, it will be readily available, and it will last. When building a retainer of stone, backfill with soil layer by layer as you build it, and incorporate longer stones to tie into the soil behind

You can tie back brick retainers in the same way. When building brick retainers, remember to leave sonic gaps for drainage; these can be used for planting through. Stone and brick retainers are more stable if they lean backward, rather than stand vertically. You can mortar brick and stone walls, but take care to leave drainage holes, and avoid putting mortar where it will be conspicuous.

Most wood is cheaper than stone or brick. It's relatively easy to handle, but it will eventually rot. Wood is the preferred choice for steps in relation to paths and desire lines. Also, it allows virtually no limit to the variety of designs for retaining walls.

The heartwood of some trees lasts longer than that of others, and longer than any sapwood. Preservatives can slow down the decay process but, because they are fungicides, pesticides, or both, you want to be certain that freshly treated wood is safe for your garden.

Build a dry­stone wall with flat, shaly, or slats stones, pieced together like a 3-dimensional jigsaw puzzle. Avoid vertical seams, which will split apart, and key into the soil backwardly projecting stones at regular intervals. Brick walls can be built without mortar, but a dab of mortar between bricks improves stability without necessarily being visible.

Locating paths

During your first year's experience, you'll discover a number of natural pathways. Such pathways suggest the routes of permanent paths. If the site is well drained, you might not have to construct anything, especially if the ground is naturally stony. In such an event, all you need consider is whether to ease the line of the path to make it more attractive.

Such perfect conditions rarely exist. It's usually necessary to create a firm, dry surface to carry regular traffic. Before commencing this labourious (and not-easily-undone task), look carefully at the shape of the lines you intend to follow. When travelling from one place to another, people usually select the most convenient route—often a straight line.

Permanent paths, however, are compelling sight lines, and straight lines crossing and intersecting your garden tend to be unattractive. So, before you make the paths permanent, consider the general view and, if necessary, introduce some curves.

If you make major changes in the garden layout, some existing routes may become redundant and new routes might emerge. It is sometimes useful to try a few temporary paths before making permanent ones.

Temporary paths

You can make temporary paths from a variety of materials. Slow mulch material such as straw, old carpet (stair carpet comes in a convenient width), sawdust, and bark chips, can be spread along the route—especially between vegetable beds—to suppress weeds and make a dry surface to walk on.

These substances usually blend into the soil; also, you can remove them to the compost heap and replace them each year.

You can use ashes, gravel. scalpings, shale, and other loose, dry materials to make temporary pathways. These materials tend to become trodden in, and are hard to remove. They're more suitable for laying down along tracks that are meant to be made permanent.

They need no foundations, but should be given a retaining border to prevent the material from spreading sideways. Make the border from logs, boards, bricks, or slabs, pegged or bedded into the ground to stop them straying.

Permanent paths

Aim to construct a clean, dry, firm, and low-maintenance surface. You want to create a permanent feature that is pleasing to the eye, easy to use, and leads somewhere.

The choice of materials depends largely on what's locally available. Paths are conspicuous, so their appearance is important. Other factors, such as durability, cost, and ease of laying, will also influence your choice. Remember that,whatever you decide upon, the result is likely to be permanent; so plan carefully.

To ensure that the path remains clean and dry, give it a free draining foundation. Aim to remove about 4 in. (1 cm) of topsoil (why waste it to walk on?), and replace at least half of this depth with hardcore, Noggin, or other mixture of large and small, sharp, non-soluble material. Ram it down as hard and as even as you can. Top it with sand to make a bed for the paving material.

Precise depths depend on the thickness of the paving material and whether you wish the path to stand proud or lie flush with the ground. A proud path tends to be drier, but a flush one doesn't interfere with using a lawnmower.

You can improve drainage more. Incorporate a slight tilt in the path's surface, so that water slides off sideways, or make the surface convex, so that it sheds water to both sides; you may also leave gaps for water to drain through.

What you decide to do might be dictated by the material you use (it's difficult to create a convex surface with large stone slabs), or by the position of the path itself (if your path runs beside a hedge, for example, giving it a slope toward the hedge helps to supply rain water to the hedge roots).

It's not essential for the path to be totally impervious—on the contrary, gaps help it to blend in with the garden. Several species of small plants can tolerate some trampling, and wild ones often naturally move into gaps and crevices.

Alternatively, you can introduce selected species. Aromatic herbs—Corsican mint, dwarf' divines, and lawn chamomile, for example—can make using the path delightful; they release their scents as one treads on them.

Paving materials

As with retaining walls, it is best use to local, natural materials.

Real stone, reconstituted stone, or concrete flags are easy to lay, but regular squares or rectangles can strike a discordant note unless used imaginatively.

Allow surrounding vegetation to fall over the path's edges; doing so breaks up straight edges and harsh angles. The joints between flags catch the eye, so their arrangement is critical. Experiment with loose-laid slabs before you begin digging foundations.

Brick paths blend well with brick-built houses. Old bricks are especially attractive. They can be arranged in a variety of patterns, from square to herringbone, with or without mortared joints.

Pay attention to drainage with brick paths. Unless properly drained, they tend to grow algae. This becomes slippery when wet—and treacherous.

Other local materials include cobbles (round stones) and sects (square stones with a domed top). These can make attractive paths. Set into mortar to stabilize them.

You can also use wood for paving, but it is best reserved for dry or cold regions. Wet wood is slippery, and wood tends to rot in warm, moist climates.
As with bricks, a region where homes are built of wood is likely to be a region where a wooden path harmonises with its surroundings .

You can make an attractive path by LAYING short, 4–8 in. (I0–20 cm) logs vertically on a bed of sand, with a fine retaining edge (see ***). This uses up a lot of wood. and requires rot-resistant timber. You can might be able to obtain wooden cobbles or hexagonal blocks; these make a more durable path; this is because they've had most of their fast-rotting sapwood removed.

Steps

When a path climbs a slope, consider constructing steps. Apart from reducing wear on the slope and being easier to negotiate, steps can are an attractive feature.

If you introduce steps to a terraced or otherwise-retained slope, construct them of the same material as the retaining material.

Building steps is akin to building terraces, but with the priority on human use. Ensure the ratio of rise to tread is at least 1:2—1:3 or more is better. Because the rise is small, the retainer doesn't carry the same weight as a terrace retainer; on the other hand, it has to resist wear from walking.

Simple wooden retainers of logs or boards, held in position by stakes, work well; with this type of step, there's rarely a need to construct treads. If you have a supply of paving or stone slabs, you can arrange them as overlapping treads to make stable steps up a shallow slope.

Ramps

It is difficult to push a wheelbarrow up steps. Where steps are part of an important supply route, running a ramp tip the middle averts much inconvenience. If the steps are wooden, a board just 4 in. (100 mm) wide is sufficient to take a wheelbarrow.

Another way to cope with a steep slope is to take the path up hairpin fashion, in the way Swiss roads run up mountainsides. This is a good way to provide access for wheelchairs, too.

Drainage

Think about drainage when you are still moving earth. If your observations reveal an inconvenient wet spot, set in some drainage. Ditto if, for any other reason, you need to re-route water.

The herringbone pattern is traditional. This directs water from a wide area into a central collecting channel; this can lead to a river, pond. or ditch. If the ground is flat, ensure the drains start shallow and slope downward.

If there's no obvious outlet for your drainage system, and if you don't want to create a pond, you might be able to create a soak away. This is a large underground sink, filled with rubble in the same way as a French drain.

In order to be effective, a soak away must cut right through the dense subsoil layer, or any hard pan, to reach into more open or porous strata beneath. This can mean digging a pit 3–12 ft (1–4 m) deep and 3–6ft (1–2 m) across. If water logging is very bad, a soak away isn't feasible; you need to consider other options (see ***).

French drain

The simplest drain is a trench filled with rubble.

Once you've dug the trench, test it to see if the design works. Then half fill it with coarse material—material that won't clog easily with liner soil particles. Place, on top of the rubble, a thick layer of slow-rotting fibrous material; this provides a base on which you may replace turfs or topsoil.

It may be possible to create a drainage system using only woody waste, if you have a plentiful supply (e.g. from initial ground clearance or hedge trimming). No compostable material lasts forever. There are modern materials (geotextiles) that, although expensive and not for the purist, do an excellent job virtually indefinitely.

Piped systems

There is a multitude of different kinds of drainpipes. All work on the principle of allowing water to run through small holes or port's, under the pressure created by a volume of groundwater.

Drainage pipes aren't visible, so the choice depends on your own circumstances, resources, needs, and feelings. Depending on the nature of the pipes you use , and the type of ground you're draining, it may be necessary to a similar structure as the French drain, but with a pipe in the middle, so ready-made drainpipes don't always represent an easy option.

The simplest, most natural process for recycling soft organic waste (one that is favoured in hot climates) is merely to spread it on the ground, and cover it, if possible, with a layer of inactive mulch.

Alternatively, make compost. Ideally you should have a fast heap (for quickly rotting materials) and a slow heap (for more resistant wastes).

You can use human body wastes. Although recycling human faeces is often impractical (because of the dangers of disease—but see ***), using urine carries negligible health risks. Also, it is a valuable fertiliser.

Industrial wastes, on the other hand, can be indestructible. Plastics are especially difficult in this respect. Avoid using indestructible industrial wastes.

Fortunately, much of our garbage falls somewhere in between urine and plastic, and there are many unwanted household materials that have a good use in the garden.