All About Bread
Bread is our most fundemental of foods, yet many of us know very little about it and have lost touch with the practical art of making and baking it ourselves. Daily we buy loaves that leave much to be desired in texture and taste and that are seriously lacking in nutritional content. We are totally dependant on the manufacturers to provide us with what should be a wholesome and nutritious food, but what is usually a mixture of chemicals, additives and denatured flour.
- Introduction
- A History of Milling and Baking
- Nutrition and Bread
- Flour and Other Bread Making Ingredients
- How To Make It
- How To Bake It: (recipes galore)
Introduction
Bread is our most important food, our principle food, on average we each eat 4-6 slices a day. And yet we know so very little about it. How many of us know what goes into bread, how it is made, what effect it has upon us? Thess pages are aimed at answering such questions.
Whilst on the one hand it is being increasingly admitted that there are great gaps in our understanding of nutrition, most especially in the relationship between nutrition and both physical and mental health, on the other hand, little or nothing of this subject is taught in our schools. Information that is available to the general public Is often confusing and lacking in the practical help so often needed that only direct tuition can give.
A History of Milling and Baking
There is no doubt that bread, in one form or another, has always been the principle food in man's diet, his 'staff of life'. Grains have been eaten for over 100,000 years, cultivated and ground into flour for over 10,000 years. Gradually, through the ages, different, milling and baking techniques have developed, although there was comparatively little development up until the Industrial Revolution, compared to the change that this, and subsequent technology have brought. Previously, all flour was stone-ground, whether in a small grinder, with a round rolling-stone or between two flat stones, one of which was powered by water, wind or rotated by horses. The Industrial Revolution brought with it the steel roller, a completely different method of milling which not only changed the type of flour produced, but also radically changed the eating habits of the nation.
The most favoured grain for making bread has
always been wheat, as it was seen to make the lightest of breads, bread
that was well-risen from a dough that was easy to handle. This is
mainly because wheat contains a high proportion of gluten, combined
with a cellulose structure that holds together well. Other grains, such
as corn or rye, have been used and in some countries are still used
more than wheat, but they contain less gluten and therefore tend to
make a heavier, flatter bread. In the past, the use of wheat was much
associated with status, being the most expensive grain, with the poorer
classes being dependent on rye, oats and barley for their flour.
Leavened breads were made, baked in the hearth or in wood stoves and
eaten as the main food of the day. Some breads were leavened with
yeast, others with a natural leavener, made from sour dough
The desire to 'whiten' or refine flour goes back some 2,000 years to the Roman aristocracy, who ate bread made from sifted, or sieved flour, whitened with small amounts of chalk. This flour was similar to what we can buy today as 85% extraction flour, as it still retained the germ, only the larger particles of the flour being sifted out (the bran). This practice set a pattern and white flour became the most sought after, associated with wealth and purity, thereby creating a craving in those unable to afford it. Families were even known to forgo other foods in order to be able to buy white bread and by the end of the eighteenth century, sales of brown bread were virtually non-existant in the towns, with wholewheat bread only surviving in the rural areas where bread was still home baked.
With the Industrial Revolution came the need to increase bread production as towns rapidly grew in size. The milling industry had many problems, one of the biggest being that of storage. Flour that is stone-ground has the germ of the grain milled in with the rest of the flour, thus the essential oils stored in the germ are evenly distributed throughout the flour. This oil, once exposed to oxygen, will start to oxidise, to go rancid, within 4-6 months. So the storage, or 'life' of the flour, was limited.
The steel roller mills that were introduced in the I870's provided the answer, by firstly splitting the grain, before milling, and enabling it to then be sieved and separated into three different products -the bran, the germ and the endosperm, which is the main starch of the grain and which is milled into white flour. The advantages of this method to the miller were enormous.
Firstly, the resulting flour was whiter (therefore "purer') as both the germ and the bran had been fully extracted; secondly, in removing the germ before grinding the flour, it meant that no oil from the germ passed into the flour, therefore there was no risk of the flour going rancid, it now had indefinite 'life'; thirdly, the flour could be milled finer and more evenly between steel rollers than it could between stones, thus producing a more standardised flour; fourthly, the miller now had two other products - the bran and the germ - that could be sold off separately, for extra profit, usually as animal food.
Thus, for the first time, white flour became the common flour, cheaper than brown and the only form of bread that most millers made. In the space of a few years a complete turnabout had taken place, from the days when only brown bread was made. It also meant that the main . food in our diet had become extremely low in essential nutrients.
Although the milling of flour was now firmly established in factories with big steel rollers, the making of bread still contained a few problems, one of them being the type of wheat used. From the 1870's we started to import. Canadian wheat which is a hard wheat, high in gluten. The use of our own soft, English wheat, therefore began to decline. Dependent on the type of wheat used was the ability of the bread to rise well and the finished texture of the bread, but the biggest difficulty of all was the time factor - bread took up to three hours to make.
This difficulty was not resolved until the 1960's with the invention of what is called the Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP), a process which is now responsible for most of the bread made and sold in bakeries and supermarkets throughout this country. It is a mixing process that speeds up the dough making to only a few minutes, thereby changing the structure of the gluten in the flour so that the bread rises well even without yeast. It also increases the water content in the loaf considerably, thus increasing the amount of bread produced per pound of flour. It produces well-risen, symmetrical loaves, with the crumbs of a uniform consistency and with a smooth, unbroken crust. Apparently just what we all want!
Todays Bread and its Additives
Milling flour and baking bread are a total part of the food industry, with 3 large groups controlling over 70% of all bread sales, with approximately 50 smaller plant bakeries and some 5,000 master bakers, who bake and sell independently on their own premises. The making of bread is often associated in our minds with happy, rosy cheeked bakers and an enticing smell, as is often the case with the master bakers. But not quite so with these large companies. Responsible for vast quantities of bread eaten each day made by the CBP process, these companies are also involved in a number of allied concerns such as animal feedstuffs (which uses up the separated bran and germ), meat processing and packaging (having fed and then slaughtered the animals..), butter and cheese making, agricultural machinery, pet foods, pasta manufacture, not to mention supermarkets, the large commercial bakeries, as well as numerous biscuit and cake products etc.
As these companies are so big, they obviously wield a great deal of power, thereby somewhat dictating the type of products that reach the public. So here we can see clearly that much of the food on the shelves in the shops is not there because it is good for us nutritionally, nor has it necessarily been prepared in such a way as to preserve the nutrients. It is there to make money, any products that do not make money.are removed.
As with all processed foods, it is more than just the original food that goes into the finished product. Additives to flour and bread are numerous, some at best are questionable and at worst could be harmful. The main reason for most of the chemical additives is to change the wheat molecules, thereby changing the structure of the wheat, in order to produce a 'better' loaf, one that will rise more and be of a more uniform shape, but not better in its value as food. What is not known however, is the long term effect this change may have on those who eat such altered wheat. After all, for thousands of years we have been eating unaltered, whole wheat - only very recently have these changes come into practice. And there is evidence to show that when a food is radically changed, the nutritional content and the effect on our health is also changed.
To produce the pure white flour we are all familiar with, it has to be bleached or it would be a grey-yellowy colour. In the past fine chalk was used, more recently it was agene. Nowadays a number of different bleaches are added, although it is mainly chlorine dioxide. The bleaching also 'improves' the flour, or rather speeds up the maturing process, thus apparently making it easier for bread making. Chlorine dioxide is kept behind sealed doors and millers who use it wear head-to-toe protective clothing. Quite a few other countries also use chlorine dioxide although in France there is a ban on its use. The bleaching process not only whitens and matures the flour, it also destroys much of its nutritional content, especially vitamin E. At present, the following are legally permitted to be added to white flour:
1 bleaching agent
4 emulsifiers
9 improving agents
1 colour
4 preservatives
4 nutrients
5 anti-oxidants
Some of the chemicals are: ascorbic acid, benzoyl peroxide, sulphur dioxide, potassium bromate. Anti-oxidents include butylated hydroxytolune (BHT) which was recommended for discontinuation in 1963 but is still in use, despite the fact that it is banned in some other countries and has been found to have harmful side-effects in animal tests, i.e. enlarged livers and mental disturbance.
Many of the additives, especially the anti-oxidents and preservatives are there to enable the bread to keep its fresh appearance from the factory to the shop, which in certain cases can be quite a long time, without the fats going rancid or the bread going dry. This becomes more necessary as the bread industry becomes more concentrated and less localised. We shall examine the use of the added nutrients in the next chapter. The colour that is added is usually caramel, necessary because many of the 'brown' breads on sale are made with white flour, with a small amount of bran or germ added for extra texture and caramel to colour it brown.
If you ask for a wholemeal loaf, you should get one, i.e. a loaf made with 100% wholewheat flour. But this may not happen as many bakers either do not know the difference or do not distinguish between wholewheat and brown. A wheatmeal loaf should be made from 80-85% extraction flour but it is often found to be the same as a brown loaf, that is, made from white flour and caramel. Hovis, Vit-Be and other such breads are all made from white flour, wheat germ and caramel, not from wholewheat flour.
The mass manufacture of bread is now the norm, as was once the home-baking of bread. White bread sales account for 85-90% of all bread sold. But nutritionally it is at last being recognised that refined white flour and bread is not as beneficial as wholewheat or unrefined flour and can possibly even be said to be harmful over a long period of time, due to the lack of natural nutrients, fibre and the addition of so many chemical additives.
Nutrition and Bread
Over the past few years there has been increasing medical concern over the amount of refined foods we eat, in particular refined cereals, i.e. white flour and bread. White refined flour is not a natural food, having been changed considerably from its original state, and as such it is not surprising that illnesses, often serious, may occur from consuming it in large quantities. Our bodies have not evolved to be able to cope adequately with refined carbohydrates without causing some damage.
On average we eat 6 slices of bread a day, as well as an ever increasing amount of cakes and biscuits, made with white flour and white sugar. Up to 50% of our diet (more amongst those on a low income) may be made up of these foods, which contain little nutritional value at all. All whole grains provide a balanced and necessary supply of nutrients, 'nature's package deal', in a form that is easily digested and doesn't overburden the system. Taking wheat as an example, we can see what it has to offer us:
The bran; Basically this is what has come to be known as roughage or fibre. This is because the bran is largely made up of cellulose which the body cannot fully break down and so it passes through the body partly un-digested, thus adding extra bulk or roughage. More of this later. Bran also contains a considerable amount of nutriment, in the form of vitamin B, iron and a little protein.
The germ: The power house of the grain, the smallest yet most nutritious part of the grain, rich in vitamins B and E, iron and other minerals, essential unsaturated fat and protein.
The endosperm: This is the main body of the grain, the food supply that the germ lives off when it is growing and which is mainly made up of carbohydrate in the form of starch with some protein, particularly gluten. It is this part of the grain that is made into white flour.
As a whole grain, these nutrients work together. For instance, vitamin B, found mainly in the germ and the bran, is necessary for the full utilisation of the carbohydrate in the endosperm. Separate the grain and these nutrients can no longer operate together, nutritionally they become far less valuable. Consequently it is now law to put a few of the nutrients back into white flour, in an attempt to restore some of the nutritive value of the original grain. But the original grain contained up to 24 different nutrients, out of which only a handful survive the refining process, with even these severely reduced in quantity and only 4 are required to be replaced, in a chemical form. These are iron, calcium, Vitamins B1 and B6. But as can be seen from the chart below, there is still a big difference between wholewheat flour and refined flour, even with added nutrients.
Vitamin and Mineral loss in the refining of wholewheat to produce 70% extraction rate white flour:
Nutrient loss in flour %
Thiamine (vit Bl) 77.1
Riboflavine (vit B2) 80.0
Niacin 80.8
Vitamin B6 71.8
Pantothenic acid 50.0
Alpha-tocopheral (vit E) 86.3
Calcium 60.0
Phosphorous 70.9
Magnesium 84.7
Potassium 77.0
Sodium 78.3
Chromium 40.0
Manganese 85.8
Iron 75.6
Cobalt 88.5
Copper 67.9
Zinc 77.7
Selenium 15.9
From Schroeder H. 'Losses of vitamins and trace minerals resulting from processing and refining of foods', American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 24, May 1971.
A few words about the nutrients that are replaced:
Iron
Iron is an essential nutrient, necessary for the
formation of red blood cells and the transportation of oxygen. A lack
of it can cause anaemia, especially at times of heavy blood loss or
pregnancy. We obtain iron from a great number of different foods: eggs,
meat, green vegetables, dried fruits, molasses and whole grains, to
name but a few. Excess iron can lead to iron deposits in the liver,
causing a variety of different ailments. Iron deficiency is actually
quite rare (anaemia can be caused by a number of things, not just a
lack of iron) and it is felt to be quite unnecessary to add extra to
bread. Also, it has now been found that the form of iron added cannot
be fully absorbed in the body.
Calcium
Calcium Is
necessary, along with phosphorous, for the development and formation of
bones and muscles and for full nerve functioning. Calcium, in the form
of chalk, was first added to bread during the war as a way of
compensating for the fall in availability of dairy foods. Nowadays, the
addition is of little value. Recommended levels of calcium intake are
met in abundance through the rest of our diet, without the consumption
of bread at all, so its addition is no longer necessary.
Vitamins B1 and B6
Both these vitamins are part of the vitamin B complex (of which there
are 12) and are necessary for the utilisation of carbohydrate and for
the proper functioning of the nervous system, so are a fairly
beneficial addition. But so are all the other vitamins In the B
complex, for the full benefit of which all are needed together, not
separately. So although the addition of these two vitamins is welcome,
it would be even more so if the other B vitamins were also added, (or,
some would rather say, not removed in the first place!)
And what of all the other vitamins and minerals removed during the refining process? Vitamin E, for example, is found mainly in the germ of the grain and is completely destroyed when the grain is refined. Necessary for the formation of tissues and for the reproductive system, Vitamin E is an essential vitamin, not found in many other foods. And it is not replaced in white flour.
Apart from the high nutritional loss in the making of white flour, there is also the loss of the bran, the outer layer of the grain. Bran is now sold as a separate product or food supplement and there is no doubt that for many long-term sufferers of constipation, it has proved to be a God-send! Basically, the greater the fibre (bran is largely fibre) content in our diet, the more easily and quickly will food pass through our digestive system and the less likely it is to get blocked on route.
This is because fibre is so constructed that the body cannot fully break it down, we can absorb the nutrients but it passes through our body only partly digested. This means that in the intestines there is more bulk which is also fairly moist having absorbed plenty of water. On a highly refined diet, with little or no fibre, food has been found to stay in the body, in the digestive system, for up to 100 hours, thereby moving through the body very slowly. On a diet containing natural, unrefined foods, with plenty of fibre, the food can pass through the body in only 36 hours and puts far less strain on the muscles in the intestines.
There are now a number of illnesses on the increase that can be directly related to a highly refined diet, especially one lacking in fibre. Diverticulotis is one, where the walls of the intestines rupture and the small ruptures or sacs can cause acute inflammation and pain. It is an illness only found to any great extent in countries where refined foods are eaten, as one of the main causes is the pressure on the intestinal walls caused by these foods. Cancer of the intestines is another such illness, now very much on the increase and one of the main reasons is felt to be the long time refined foods take to pass through the body. Other illnesses attributed to a high consumption of refined carbohydrates are: appendicitis, varicose veins, ulcers, haemorrhoids and even heart disease. However, if one is eating wholewheat products, there should be no need to add extra bran to ones diet at all. It is a food supplement, especially needed by those suffering from the result of a refined diet.
As we have seen, bread has always been the staple food for man. Wholewheat bread, or bread made from any other whole grain flour, can justifiably stand up to the claim of being 'the staff of life', as it contains protein, unsaturated fat, 24 vitamins and minerals and carbohydrate - in other words, it is a complete and necessary food containing nearly all we need to sustain life. Can white bread be said to fulfill the same qualities? Bread is as much a staple food now as it ever was in the past but nutritionally it does not compare. Little wonder then, as we are still eating so much of it, that we are also suffering from the effect of it.
Possibly one of the main difficulties lies in the lack of understanding and knowledge that the average consumer has about nutrition. The qualities looked for in a loaf of bread (or any food for that matter) are freshness, appearence and taste, as if these qualities in themselves denote high nutrition. The fact that the' product may contain no real nutritional value at all does not occur, it is not even thought of. As long as it looks good then it must do us good, no connection between what we eat and our state of health is made.
Flour and Other Bread Making Ingredients
Defore going any further, it is necessary to describe 'gluten', as it is mentioned a number of times in this chapter. Gluten is made up of various proteins which form the skin of thousands of tiny balloons. These balloons, or bubbles, hold the gas produced by the growing yeast (or rising agent) in the bread. Without these balloons the gas would simply escape and the bread would not rise. So flour high in gluten makes for a well-risen loaf.
Wheat
Wheat flour is the most commonly used flour for bread, with most manufactured bread in this country being made from hard Canadian wheat. Hard, or strong wheat, is that which is grown in a hot, sunny climate with a low rainfall, a climate which raises the gluten level in the wheat, therefore the flour makes a lighter loaf. Weak, or soft wheat, is that grown in a climate low in sunshine but high in rain, which creates a low gluten level and therefore a smaller, denser loaf. Soft wheat is grown in this country whereas the wheat grown in Canada and the USA is ideal hard wheat.
Most bakers claim that the customer would not want a loaf made with British wheat as it is heavier, but British wheat can be used successfully by the home-baker, so long as it is recognised that it may not rise quite so well. Some people complain that wholewheat bread is too heavy, but maybe it is just a matter of what we are used to, what we have been conditioned to like. Others complain that white bread is too light. Even home-made bread that hasn't risen much and seems a bit stodgy, is still a far fuller and satisfying bread than any commercial bread.
There are a number of advantages for using British wheat, although it is a soft wheat, as opposed to using Canadian wheat. Firstly, Canadian wheat, even if the flour is stoneground, the grain will not be organically grown i.e. it will have been sprayed with chemical insecticides, pesticides etc, whereas it is fairly easy to obtain organically grown English wheat. Secondly, by using wheat grown in this country we are using a food that has grown in the same climate as ourselves, rather than in a completely different one. Thirdly, it is a way of helping to keep down the amount of food imported into this country and in turn helps support English farmers. Quite a few of the most common brand names of wholewheat flour (Allinsons and Prewett's for example) use Canadian inorganic wheat, as it does make a better loaf. But English wheat, often locally grown, is easily available, and can sometimes even be bought direct from the farm.
Wheat flour is milled to different extraction rates:
100% - here the whole of the grain is milled, with nothing removed.
85% - here the bran (15%) has been sifted out of the flour, making it slightly lighter, but with less fibre. Rather than buying these two different types of flour separately, it is more economical to buy just 100% and then sieve it oneself to extract the 15% bran if a lighter flour is required. The bran can then be used in other dishes.
81% - This flour has had 19% sieved out, making it a lighter flour still but it does mean it has lost more of its nutritional value. 81% and 85% are sometimes called wheatmeal flour, but this can also be ordinary white flour with some bran put back in.
70-76% - This flour has had the bran and the germ completely removed, before the milling, to make white flour.
Unbleached white flour - It is possible to buy this flour, that is approx. 75% extraction but with no added bleaches or chemicals. It is no more nutritious than ordinary white flour but possibly safer due to the lack of additives.
Strong white flour - Usually recommended to make white bread with as this is the strong Canadian flour, as opposed to the ordinary soft white cake or biscuit flour.
All flours are at their best when freshly milled, but wholewheat will go rancid after 4-6 months. It is still safe to use it after this time but will have a slightly sour taste. The whole grain will, however, keep indefinitely if kept dry and cool and not milled into flour.
Wholewheat grain (cooked) is a nice addition to bread, giving it added texture. Broken wheat is added to granary bread to give it its crunch. Wheat flakes can also be added.
Rye
Rye was known as
the 'poor man's wheat' for a very long time although it has now nearly
died out in this country, with only Russian, Polish or German cookery
still really favouring it. Rye has a wonderful taste but if used on its
own will produce a rather heavy, flat bread for although it has a
fairly high gluten content, it does not have the same structure as
wheat and is unable to hold the gas when rising. It is easiest to make
if mixed with approx. 50% wheat flour.
Rye bread is especially good made with a sour dough recipe as this enhances the naturally slightly sour taste of rye. It is possible to buy English organic rye flour or grain from which to make ones own flour.
Barley
Barley was
also one of the main English bread flours of the past, as well as being
the staple food of Tibet where a mixture of barley flour, tea and
butter was made into rolls and cooked over open fires. As a flour for
bread it is low in gluten, so is best mixed with wheat flour to help it
rise. It has a very special flavour and is particularly good with lots
of herbs as a savoury loaf. It is also good for making sauces and
crumble toppings, and it is from barley that we make malt.
Oats
Oatmeal
(available as coarse, medium and fine) or oat flour (finer than fine
oatmeal) is very low in gluten so produces a flat, heavy bread on its
own. But either oatmeal or oat flakes added to bread can give it a
lovely chewy and light texture. Oats are high in protein but also
fairly high in essential fats which means that they tend to go rancid
fairly quickly, unless stored as the whole grain, groats.
Corn
Called either corn or maize and available as both meal and flour, which
can be a bit confusing! The meal is a bit coarser than the flour, both
a lovely rich yellow colour. Commercial white cornflour is made from
the refined grain and has little nutritional value, whilst the yellow
cornflour is made from the whole grain.
Corn is very underused in this country, but is grown and used considerably in South America and in Italy for a staple dish called 'Polenta*. Low in gluten, corn bread is a flat yellow bread with a rich flavour. Used with wheat it makes a lovely golden loaf, with a good texture or use it for making sauces, crumble toppings etc.
It is worth noting here that arrowroot powder (made from the dried roots of the arrowroot plant) works in a similar way to commercial cornflour, in making a thick clear sauce, but it is far more nutritious. It is used in exactly the same way.
Rice
Brown rice flour
(not to be confused with ordinary white rice flour or ground rice) is
very low in gluten and not that suitable for bread making, being a very
dense, moist flour, although small quantities can be mixed with wheat
flour. It is however, ideal for sauces, sweet dishes, biscuits and
makes a lovely creamy pudding when cooked, like semolina, with milk and
honey. This is especially loved by babies!
Cooked whole rice is a useful addition to bread, adding extra texture and helping to keep the bread moist for longer.
Buckwheat
Like rice,
buckwheat is very low in gluten and too dense for bread except in small
portions. But it is ideal for pancakes, especially savoury ones,
muffins and crumpets.
Millet
Millet flour
is very hard to come by and not much us: in bread except for making a
flat, chewy loaf. Millet flakes added to bread give it a stronger
taste, or they can be cooked with a little water and made into a thick
savoury cream, with added seasonings.
Soya
Soya flour can
be used as a nutritious addition to bread and cakes, whilst not
altering the texture enough to affect the loaf. It adds a lot of extra
protein but it is very rich and not advisable to use too much of at
once, approx. 1-2 tablespoons per pound of flour being plenty.
Bean flours
Flours such as chick pea or lentil have come to us from the East where
they are mainly used for making into flat breads like chappatis or for
making batters into which vegetables are dipped before being deep fried.
OTHER INGREDIENTS
Other ingredients in bread can be numerous, the American loaf has been known to have up to 93 added ingredients! Home-made bread has one great advantage - at least you know what has gone into it.
Wild yeasts are all around us - the bloom on plums and grapes, on berries, leaves and bark, all are natural yeasts. Yeast is also present in fermented liquor, the yeast on the grape being a natural fermentation agent. The use of yeast for bread was probably first discovered when liquor or beer found its way into some dough. Previous to the use of yeast as a rising agent was the use of small amounts of fermented bread dough (see sour dough bread) which had been fermenting for a few days. Breads made with yeast are leavened, unleavened breads being much heavier and flatter.
Over the years it has been discovered that yeast is a single cell plant and when given the right conditions -warmth and moisture - these cells will multiply rapidly. As they do this they convert the starch into sugar, releasing carbon dioxide (gas) which, in trying to find a way out, lifts and aerates the dough. This is where the gluten in the flour is so important as it allows the dough to expand without allowing the gas to escape. When the bread is cooked, this gas is destroyed but the bread remains risen.
To grow happily the yeast needs certain foods as well as warmth and moisture. Best of all it likes sugar. But this does not mean that one has to administer large doses of white sugar, as in fact too much sugar will kill the yeast. Instead it prefers the natural weaker sugars found in honey or malt extract. It also gets what it needs from the starch contained in the flour. Only if using dried yeast is any form of extra sweetening needed and here it needs only to be a teaspoon of honey, while fresh yeast does not need anything added as the warmth of the water is sufficient to start it activating.
Fresh yeast, looking somewhat like putty, if kept dry and cool, as in a fridge or cool larder, will keep alive, but dormant, for up to 3 weeks before it begins to die. When it does this it goes a darker colour and smells stronger. It can be deep frozen for up to 3 months. The dried yeast granules, which will last for up to 3 years if kept really air-tight, are air-dried, which leaves the yeast cells dormant.
As yeast has such remarkable growing powers, the longer one is able to leave the dough to rise, the less yeast will be needed initially: 1oz of fresh yeast being enough for 3lbs of flour if left for 2-3 hours, but only 1oz would be needed if. it was left for 7-8 hours. When leaving bread to rise for a long time however, do punch it down and knead it for a few minutes every hour or so. Otherwise the yeast can die in the gas it produces. Kneading the bread releases the gas and Introduces fresh oxygen.
When using dried yeast, only half the amount of yeast is needed to the amount of fresh yeast as it is more active. Fresh yeast need only be dissolved in a little warm water before being used, whilst dried yeast needs to be left for 10 minutes or so in warm water with a little honey or malt to activate and froth up. One can also get a product called Fermipan which is a form of fresh yeast granules kept air-tight that need no dissolving at all, but can be added direct to the flour. Use slightly less of Fermipan than one would normally use of dried yeast.
Sour Dough
Before yeast was discovered as a rising agent, it was common practice to leave a small amount of dough for a few days, during which time it soured slightly, and then to mix this into the main bread dough, as it helped it to rise. This type of bread has come to be called sour dough, due to its slightly sour taste. The rising agent is called a starter. It is easily made and the fermented properties of the starter are very beneficial to the digestive system, stimulating the enzymes. The bread produced has a slightly sour taste, which most people find very pleasant and the bread often rises very well. See page 39 for recipes and how to make a starter. Starters have been known to last for years, as out of each batch of bread dough, one takes a fresh starter to replenish the old. In some parts of the world (i.e. Germany and America) this is a very popular method for making bread, pancakes and muffins.
Cream of Tartar
Cream of tartar and bicarbonate of soda are, or rather were, the two main ingredients in commercial baking powder. Cream of tartar is especially interesting as, like yeast and the sour dough starter, it is a naturally fermented rising agent. When wine is made in wooden wine vats and then poured out, there remains a white sediment on the inside of the vat. Scraped off and dried, this is cream of tartar. Unfortunately, most wine merchants now use metal wine vats and this same process does not occur, so cream of tartar is becoming harder to obtain.
Look closely at tins of baking powder now on sale and more than likely you will see that the ingredients are Bicarbonate of soda, acid sodium pyrophosphate and acid calcium phosphate, chemical replacements for cream of tartar. It is though, still available as a separate product. Apart from these chemical replacements, bicarb of soda is known to have detrimental effects on vitamin B when used in baking, so can cancel out one of the main advantages of using wholewheat flour.
Baking powder in cakes can be omitted altogether and replaced with just cream of tartar; or try creaming a little (1/4oz) fresh yeast in at the beginning of making the cake, then leave the mixture to rise for a few minutes prior to baking; or beat the whites of any eggs used separately and fold them in at the end of the mixing process. Alternatively, omit all rising agents altogether and just let the cake be as it is - slightly heavier and a little more solid than you may be used to but just as tasty.
Sugar. Honey, Molasses and Malt
Sugar is not a necessary ingredient in bread as so many bread recipes would have us believe - in fact it can have a detrimental effect. It is an extremely concentrated unnatural form of sucrose, found nowhere in nature in such strength. It can be omitted from cakes and biscuits just as easily as it can from bread and replaced with either honey or a mixture of honey, malt or molasses. If sugar is to be used (as in some biscuit recipes) then the heavy moist molasses or muscavado sugar should be used as this is slightly less concentrated and does contain some nutritional value, as opposed to white sugar which contains no nutritional value whatsoever.
Molasses is extracted as sugar is refined and it contains valuable nutrients such as iron and vitamin B, Black treacle is similar to molasses but contains a higher amount of sugar.
Honey also contains sucrose - but in a natural and far less concentrated form which the body is able to digest more easily and which does not have the same harmful effects. Sucrose itself is not harmful, unless it is taken in very concentrated and large amounts, as in white sugar. Honey also contains many other beneficial nutrients. If using it in cake recipes Instead of sugar, then simply reduce the liquid content slightly.
Malt extract can also be used instead of sugar for making bread and mixed with honey for cakes. Like honey, malt also contains sucrose, but In a natural form as is found in all. whole grains. Malt is made from sprouted and slightly fermented barley, so is a very natural product and is rich in vitamin B, iron and other trace minerals.
Salt
Most people prefer salt in their bread, but it is very much a matter of choice and certainly not essential. It does tend to slow down the rising effect of yeast slightly, so if large amounts of salt are added, extra time will be needed for the bread to rise.
Pure sea or rock salt will be found to have a fuller taste as well as being rich in minerals and free of the chemicals added to commercial salt.
Oil
Most ordinary bread recipes call for the addition of 1-2oz fat, either butter, oil or lard. It is a very small amount and can be omitted completely without making that much difference. It's main use is in helping to keep the bread fresh. Butter will make an especially rich crust which can be nice but there is no need for lard (animal fat) to be used at any time. Oil used in bread (approx. 3tbs per 3lbs of flour) adds workability to the dough and improves the texture, but it can be left out with just as good results.
Water
Water in bread is obviously necessary, although milk can be used instead, What is most important is the temperature of the water. Too hot and it will kill the yeast, too cool and the yeast will take longer to activate. Best of all is a temperature between 98°F - 108°F, but a themometre is not essential, experience of 'hand-hot' being more important. Blood temperature is what to aim at so when testing with your finger, it should be neither too hot nor too cold, but nicely warm.
Flour absorbs different amounts of water so it is always difficult to give exact quantities. The flour you use may need more or less water than stated in the recipe so adjust accordingly, if you are concerned at all about the chemicals being added to your water supply, then simple water filters are available through major wholefood shops that are very effective. Alternatively, use water that has been boiled and cooled.
How To Make It
How to make bread? There are dozens of recipes available in nearly every cookbook ever written, although what tends to happen is that each cook develops in their own way the method best suited to them. The different methods vary mainly in the number of risings the doUgh has before baking; basically the more risings, the higher the bread will be, as it gives the yeast more time to develop, but one can make successful loaves with only one quick rising and no kneading at all. The thing to do is to try out the different methods and see which you prefer.
Many people are put off bread making by thinking it all takes so long to do, so maybe start with the 'Quick Make' method and discover the bread you can make from start to finish in little over an hour. And remember - although bread risen say 3 times, over a long period, might seem to take ages to make, it doesn't mean that you have to be with it all the time. The amount of time you actually spend with the bread may be very little and you can get on with other things in the meantime. Bread making is really very simple and it is possible to get good results every time you make it - there are no hidden secrets!
Always allow the loaves to cool before you cut them, as hot dough can cause upset stomachs and the loaf is likely to collapse.
Things that can go wrong
There are a few things that can go wrong but an understanding of them can only lead to better bread, so do not despair if your first baking efforts fail!
Bread failing to rise: Either the water was too hot and thereby killed the yeast, or the warm place where the dough was left to rise was too hot. Or, if fresh yeast was used, it may have been rather old. Alternatively, the wheat used was naturally low in gluten, like English wheat flour, rye or barley flour.
Crust comes apart: Here the bread possibly rose too quickly which can happen if the warm place is too warm, or the dough wasn't mixed or kneaded enough, causing the yeast to be distributed unevenly.
Bread dry and heavy: Either not
enough water content in the dough so making it a bit dry, or the bread
was cooked for too long, drying out in the oven.
Bread uncooked in the middle: Here either the bread was cooked too
quickly and thereby cooked on the outside but not on the Inside, so try
reducing the temperature of your oven and bake for a little longer; or
the dough was too moist, like rye which tends to go rather sticky.
Bread rises and sinks again: This is mainly due to a low gluten level in the flour. It is able to hold the gas initially as the bread rises but if it is knocked or moved slightly then the gas escapes. The only answer is to leave the bread to rise for the last time in the oven, so that it isn't moved again before being baked.
Equipment
To make bread you will need a big bowl. A china (earthenware) one is best if possible. A measuring jug is useful but a clean milk bottle will measure a pint or 5 pint if you are careful. Scales are very handy, especially as cup measurements can easily go wrong if you use a different sized cup to the one in the recipe. A big wooden spoon is essential as is also a nice place to knead the dough. Most people prefer wood, marble is good but can make the dough a bit chilly, but really all that is important is a working top of the right height, with an easy-to-clean surface.
Good bread tins are important but that doesn't necess-arilly mean brand new ones. The best type are the cheap aluminium ones once they have been well sealed with oil and usage. When new, the bread tends to stick to these pans and they can have a slightly metal taste. To seal them, coat them in oil on the inside and bake for 10 mins in a hot oven. Repeat a few times, without washing in between.
After baking bread also avoid washing the tins, just wipe clean with a cloth or, if washing is necessary, avoid scouring or using washing-up liquids as the soap will break down the non-stick surface you have made and you will find your bread sticking again. The non-stick tins are a temptation as they are easy to use but once the non-stick coating begins to scratch, then it can become toxic. Also they tend to come in a long, low shape, whereas the aluminium ones come in a slightly shorter but higher shaped tin which makes a higher loaf as the sides of the tin help to support the dough as it is rising. Earthenware flower pots can also be used to make bread in, but seal them well first with oil,as for the aluminium tins.
For rolls or round loaves, a flat baking tray is all that is needed, although round loaves can also be done in round cake tins. The old fashioned tart trays with patterns in the bottom of each tart container make nice holders for rolls as you end up with each roll having a pattern on its bottom. And finally, a jar with oil in It and a small (%M) paintbrush is the easiest way to oil your tins.
Kneading
Kneading is essential as it not only mixes the dough but it also releases the gas produced by the growing yeast and gives it fresh oxygen to continue growing otherwise it can get too gassy and the yeast may die it needs oxygen to grow happily. So kneading helps the yeast to grow fully as well as improving the texture of the dough. In the 'Quick Make* method the kneading is replaced with a thorough mixing but as the bread has only one rising before being baked, there is little chance of the yeast gassing itself.
Everyone has their own way of kneading but essentially it is a matter of using the fists and punching the dough out flat, then folding it back upon itself, before punching it out again. Experiment and find your own method. If you have done pottery then treat the doughs you would clay! Above all, be firm.
A warm place
In all bread recipes one. finds the need for a warm place in which to put the dough to rise. A warm place is only necessary if you wish the dough to rise within an hour, whereas If you want to leave it to rise more slowly, then leave it at room temperature. If you want to leave It ail day then put It in a cool place (larder or fridge), it will still rise but very much more slowly
A warm place will be whatever you have - an airing cupboard, next to a water heater, above an aga, or put the oven on low for a few minutes, put the bowl in and turn the oven off, it will stay nice and warm for quite a while. Covering the bowl with a cloth helps to keep it warm. Putting it in a polythene bag also helps to keep it warm and is advantageous if you are going out and leaving the bread to rise without supervision - if by any chance it rises too much then you won't have dough everywhere to greet you on your return. The only warning is not to leave it in too hot a place or the yeast will quickly die.
Oven Temperatures
Each of the following recipes has an oven temperature for gas, so below is a guide for the conversion of gas to other temperatures. Ovens vary considerably, so you may need to adjust accordingly. Often new ovens are much hotter than old ones.
| Gas | °F | °C | solid fuel |
| 1 | 275 | 140 | very slow |
| 2 | 300 | 150 | medium |
| 3 | 325 | 160 | medium |
| 4 | 350 | 180 | medium |
| 5 | 375 | 190 | fairly hot |
| 6 | 400 | 205 | hot |
| 7 | 425 | 220 | hot |
| 8 | 450 | 230 | very hot |
| 9 | 475 | 240 | very hot |
1oz - 29 gms
2oz - 58 gms
4oz - 115 gms
8oz - 2 30 gms
12oz- 345 gms
1 lb- 460 gms
2.2 lbs - 1 kg
9 fl oz - 250 mls (1/4 litre)
18 fl oz - 500 mls (1/2
litre)
1 3/4 pint - 1 litre
How To Bake It
One Rising or Quick Make Bread
This is a foolproof recipe, very easy to make, with no kneading! The bread produced is fairly moist, with a more spongy type texture, which keeps well. Warnings: being a moist dough, it does not hold its own .shape when rising as ordinary dough does and once it reaches the top of the tin it starts to flop over the sides, so keep an eye on it. If it does go over the aides, then push back and leave to rise to the top again. You don't get a nicely rounded loaf with this method, it tends to be rather flat on top. Also, being fairly moist, it can easily stick to the sides of the tins so make sure they are well oiled. If using fairly new tins then after oiling, dust lightly with flour.
For 2 loaves (using 2lbs flour)
2 lbs flour (1007. or a mixture of other flours)
1
oz fresh yeast or
1/2 oz dried yeast and 1 tsp honey
2 tsp salt
1 pint and a little extra warm water
Dissolve the yeast in 1/2 pint warm water, adding the honey and leaving to froth for 10 minutes if using dried yeast. Mix the salt into the flour and any oil required, plus any extra ingredients (see ideas below). Add the yeast and a further 1/2 pint warm water and mix really well. Now add a little extra warm water (approx. 1-3 fl oz). Different flours will require different amounts, but one is aiming to achieve a dough that is too moist to knead with the hands but is just moist enough to be able to beat with a spoon, not so it is actually wet.
Again, experiment, after a couple of tries you will soon learn how much is needed. Beat really well then divide and put into two well oiled tins and leave to rise in a warm place, putting them in the oven just as the dough comes to the tops of the tins. Bake for 15 mins, reg.6, then for 25 mins at reg.5. Take the bread out of the tins and put them back in the oven, upsidedown, for 5 mins, to get a good crust all over. Baking them in this way helps the moist dough to cook all through.
For one loaf, use only half the quantities.
Two Risings or Ordinary Bread
This is the sort of recipe most commonly found in recipe books or on flour packets. It makes a good, easy to cut and firm loaf.
For 2 loaves (using 2 lb tins)
2 lbs flour
1 oz fresh yeast or
1/2 oz
dried yeast and 1 tsp honey
2 tsp salt
2 tbs
oil (optional)
1 pint warm water
extra flour for kneading
Dissolve the yeast in 1/2 pint warm water, adding the honey and leaving for 10 minutes if using dried yeast. Mix the salt and the oil with the flour and any other extra ingredients. Then mix the yeast into the flour with a further k pint warm water. Mix well, adding the further k pint warm water as required to make a firm but soft dough.
Turn out onto a floured work top and knead for a few minutes. If your bowl is big enough then one can knead the dough in the bowl instead. Add any extra flour as you knead if the dough is a bit sticky, or a little extra water if the dough is a bit dry. Put the dough back In the bowl and cover with a warm cloth. Leave to rise in a warm place until doubled in size (about 30-45 minutes).
Tip the dough out onto your board and knead again for a few minutes. Divide into two and shape into loaves, then press down into the bread tins. Leave to rise again in a warm place until the dough fills the tins. Bake at reg.6 for 35 mins. then take the loaves out of the tins and return to the oven upsidedown for a further few minutes, turning the oven down to reg.4. Cool.
Three Risings or Slow Bread
This method uses exactly the same ingredients as the last method, 'Ordinary' bread, and the method is the same up until the dough has doubled in size for the first time. Then knead the dough well again for a few minutes, put back in the bowl and leave to rise again in a warm place. After this second rising, the bread is kneaded again before being put in the tins and left to rise for a third time. It makes a slightly lighter loaf, of a very fine texture and well risen as the yeast has had more time to grow.
Three Risings or Batter Bread
This method starts with a batter, leaving that to rise first. This produces a very fine loaf indeed, so is well worth trying.
For 2 loaves (using 2 lb tins)
2 lbs flour
1 oz fresh yeast or
1/2 oz
dried yeast and 1 tsp honey
2 tap salt
2 tbs oil
1 1/4 pints warm water
extra flour for kneading
Dissolve the yeast in the 1/4 pint warm water, adding the honey if using dried yeast. Meanwhile put 1 lb of your flour in a bowl, add the yeast and the further 1 pint of warm water. Beat really well into a thick batter. Leave to double in size in a warm place.
When risen, add 2 tap salt, the oil and any extra ingredients you may like to add plus your second pound of flour. Turn onto a floured board and knead for a few minutes, adding extra flour if the dough is a bit sticky. Put back into the bowl and leave to rise again till double in size.
Knead the dough again for a few minutes then divide in two,
press into the tins and leave to rise again before baking. Bake at reg
6 for 35 mins, then remove from the tins and return to the oven for 5
mins, at reg 4. Cool.
Unleavened Bread
Unleavened bread has no rising agents at all so makes a heavier, chewier bread, with a really full taste. It can be made with any mixture of flours and with added whole grains (cooked), nuts, fruit, vegetables etc. It will rise a little if left overnight in a warm place before baking.
The recipe
There isn't one! All you need to do is mix your flour with warm water until you have a thick batter. Leave overnight or for a few hours in a warm place. In the morning mix in a little salt, any other ingredients you fancy and enough flour to form a dough. Knead well, divide and put into two tins. Leave in a warm place for 1-2 hours, when they will rise a little. Then bake at reg 5 for 35-40 mins.
Sour Dough
Sour dough is made with a naturally fermented rising agent called a starter and the resulting bread has a slightly sour but very pleasing taste. The fermented starter is very good for the digestive system.
To make a starter:
Mix together 3 tbs flour with 3-4 tbs water (enough of each to form a
thick batter) and put in a jar or bowl, not filling the jar to the top
but leaving some air space. Any left-over cooked grains, bread dough,
pastry or cooked beans can also be added. Leave to ferment for 4-6
days, shaking the jar occasionally. It will activate a bit quicker in a
warm place. When it smells really sour and bubbly then it is ready.
This is your starter and can be replenished with each batch of bread, when it should be left again for a few days before being used. Any cooked food can be added to it, or even yeast, but avoid using dairy foods. If it starts to get too strong then leave it in the fridge, which will slow down the fermentation. Starters can go on indefinately, treat them with care and they will never let you down. The older they are, the better they will rise.
The bread. For 2 loaves (using 2 lb tins)
1 jam
jar of starter
2 lbs flour
2 tsp salt
2 tbs oil
approx 3/4 pint warm water
At night, mix together lib of flour and the starter with the water. Beat really well, then cover and leave overnight in a warm place.
In the morning remove 1 cup of the batter to replenish your starter. Then add the salt, oil and remaining pound of flour plus any extras you fancy. Mix well, adding a little extra flour or water if needed to form a good dough. Knead for a few minutes then divide and put into two tins. Slit the tops with a knife and then leave to rise in a warm place for 1-2 hours. Bake for 35 mins, reg.6. Remove the loaves from the tins and return to the oven for 5 mins, reg.4.
Warning: sour dough is very tempermental and you may find that even after 2 hours it still hasn't risen. Do not despair. Bake anyway and be surprised - invariably it rises in the oven; other times it will rise beautifully before baking. You can never tell.
Now For The Variations
BREADS GALORE
Sesame Bread
Add 1 tbs sesame seeds to any 1 lb of flour in the above recipes. Use
seame oil in the recipe too and brush the tops of the loaves with oil,
sprinkle with seeds and bake. Delicious. Add more seeds if you are
addicted to them.
Poppy Bread
Add 1 tbs
poppy seeds in any of the above recipes, per 1 lb of flour. Especially
good with rye bread. Brush the tops of the loaves with oil or milk and
sprinkle with seeds before baking.
Caraway Bread
Add 1
tbs caraway seeds per 1 lb of flour in any of the above recipes. Brush
the tops of the loaves with milk and sprinkle a few seeds on top before
baking. Caraway seeds have been called 'little moments of sudden
awareness' - try them and see.
Sunflower Bread
Add
4oz chopped or ground sunflower seeds to any 1 lb of flour, then brush
the tops of the loaves with milk and sprinkle with whole seeds before
baking. Try adding 1 tbs tamari (soy sauce) to the dough as well, for a
slightly savoury loaf.
Celery Bread
Add 1 tbs celery seeds and 2 stalks of celery, finely chopped and
lightly fried, to any 1 lb of flour. Brush the tops of the loaves with
milk or oil and sprinkle with black pepper. A very savoury bread good
with soups or for sandwiches.
Herb Bread
Add either
3 tsp dried or 2 tbs fresh herbs per 1 lb of flour. Use whatever you
fancy - thyme, oregano and chives are nice but most people seem to find
their own favourites. Try adding 1-2 tbs tamari to the dough as well,
to make it more savoury.
Sprouted Bread
Sprouted wheat, alfafa, green lentils, aduki beans or fenugreek seeds
go really well in bread (as do any sprouts - mung, sunflower etc). Mix
in a cupful or two into the flour before making Into a dough. Adds
taste, texture and nutrition.
Cheese Bread
Add 4oz
grated cheese, plenty of black pepper and a few herbs per 1 lb of
flour. Mix into the flour before making a dough.
Orange Bread
Add the
shredded rind of one orange and 3oz chopped dates per 1 lb of flour.
Also use the juice of the orange to replace some of the water in the
recipe. Try adding 1 tbs honey as well.
Simple Fruit Bread
To every 1 lb of flour, add 4oz raisins, sultanas or chopped dates (or
all three) and 1 tbs honey or malt.
Nut Bread
To every 1
lb of flour, add 4oz chopped nuts (try hazels or walnuts). Arrange a
few on top of the loaf before baking.
Fruit
& Nut Bread
To every 1 lb of flour,
add 3oz chopped nuts, 3oz dried fruit and 1 tbs honey or malt extract.
Banana Bread
A
favourite with everyone, banana bread can be elabourated with eggs and
spices into a cake or served as it is, a sweet, fruity loaf.
1 lb flour (1007. is best)
1/2 oz fresh yeast or
1/4 oz dried yeast and 1 tsp honey
1 tsp salt
2
tbs honey
2 large or 3 small mashed bananas
2
oz raisins
1/3 pint warm milk
Dissolve the yeast in the warm milk with the 1 tsp honey if
using dried yeast. Mix all the other ingredients together, then add the
yeast, mixing well. Knead for a few minutes in the bowl, put into a 2
lb bread tin and leave to rise in a warm place. Bake for 40 mins, reg.5.
Malt Bread
A
simple bread that can be elabourated into a cake with eggs and butter.
1 lb flour
1/2 oz fresh yeast or
1/4 oz dried
yeast and 1 tsp honey
1 tsp salt
4 oz raisins
3 tbs malt extract and 1 tbs honey
1/3 pint warm milk
Dissolve the yeast in the warm milk with the tsp honey if using dried yeast. Mix all the other ingredients together, add the yeast and mix well. Knead for a few minutes, adding a little extra flour if necessary. Put in a 2 lb bread tin and leave to rise in a warm place. Bake for 40 minutes, reg.5. Add extra malt if you are a lover of it. Delicious eaten warm with butter and malt spread.
Rye Bread
Rye bread
is famous for its taste but it is a difficult bread to make, due to rye
being low in gluten and the moist, sticky dough that it makes. For best
results, make rye bread with 50% rye flour and 50% wheat flour, as this
helps the workability.of the dough. Rye bread is especially good if
made with a starter as sour dough bread, as the sourness complements
the rye flavour. It is also good if molasses is added and lots of poppy
seeds. Or try it made with 1 cup of buttermilk or sour cream instead of
1 cup water.
Corn Bread
Traditional corn bread in the USA is a rather sloppy mixture, but corn
flour (or meal) can be used in any of the above methods very
successfully. It is low in gluten so the resulting bread does not rise
too well, but it has a strong flavour and fine texture and is a lovely
golden colour. Best if used with 50% corn and 50% wheat flour. To make
even more savoury, try adding 2 tsp herbs and 2 tbs tamari, to make
Herby Corn Bread.
Oat Bread
Oats, either as meal or flakes, make a lovely addition to bread, adding
texture and taste. They can be added to any of the bread methods,
replacing Aoz from each 1 lb of flour with 4oz oats. Best to use are
either medium oatmeal or porridge oat flakes.
Barley Bread
Once tried, barley bread will be made again and again, as it has quite
an addictive taste. Barley, being low in gluten does not rise at all
well and tends to make a very crumbly bread if used on its own, but
with 50% barley and 50% wheat flour, a good bread Is produced. Use any
of the above methods for making the bread.
Whole Grain Bread
Cooked whole grain, like rice, wheat or buckwheat, makes a bread
chewier, moister and very satisfying. Add 1 or 2 cups of cooked grain
to the flour before making up the dough. You may find it more difficult
to knead as it will be softer and more crumbly than usual.
Rolls
Rolls can be made from any bread mixture, simply divide the dough into
equal parts and form into rounds instead of making into loaves. Put the
rolls on a baking sheet, cover with a cloth and leave to rise. Then
bake at reg.7 for 20 minutes. The difficulty is that these rolls tend
to have a hard crust which doesn't please everyone. One way to avoid
this is to cover the rolls with a cloth as soon as they come out of the
oven - the steam trapped by the cloth helps keep the crust soft.
Alternatively, mix up a special dough:
1 lb flour
1/2 oz fresh or
1/4 oz
dried yeast and 1 tsp honey
1 tsp salt
1/2 pint
warm milk
2 tbs oil
Dissolve the yeast in the warm milk, adding the 1 tsp honey if using dried yeast. Mix the other ingredients together then add the yeasty milk and mix well to form a soft dough. Knead, then cover, and leave to rise in a warm place till double in size. Knead again for a few minutes, form into rolls, and place on a greased sheet. To help the rolls keep their shape and not flatten out, tuck the dough underneath itself all round the roll. Cover and leave to rise. Brush with milk and sprinkle with a few poppy or sesame seeds, then bake at reg.7 for 20 minutes. Cool with a cloth over the top.
Chappatis
Chappatis
are a form of flat bread, mainly found in the Middle East. One can buy
wholewheat chappati flour which is very finely ground, or just use
ordinary 100% flour.
Mix 6oz of flour with enough water to form a firm dough. Break off small amounts and roll out into very thin rounds. Cook each one in a dry frying pan (cast iron is ideal) until golden brown (a few minutes). Then pop them under the grill and they should puff up splendidly. Serve with curries, stews etc.
Tortillas are another form of flat bread, made with yellow corn flour instead of wheat flour. Thay are harder to make, requiring more kneading to make a firm dough.
Purls are a form of chappati, but deep fried instead of grilled.
Pancakes
Pancakes are
easy to make and fun to eat. And once you have mastered the art of
tossing, they are fun to make as well.
For 4-6 pancakes:
2 oz wholewheat flour
1/4 pint milk
1
egg
1 tsp salt
Beat all the ingredients together. If possible, leave the mixture for an hour or so before using it, to give the flour time to absorb the milk and soften. Heat a flat-bottomed frying pan with a small amount of oil, until really hot. Pour in a ladle of batter, turning the pan as you do so to ensure even coverage. Cook on a medium heat for a few minutes, then toss or turn with a spatula and cook on the other side. Keep hot in the oven and serve either sweet or savoury.
Sweet Pancakes: Add 1 tbs honey to the batter mixture and serve with lemon juice and honey. Or for a real treat, fill the pancakes with pureed apricots or figs and serve with cream.
Savoury Pancakes: Add black pepper, tamari, herbs, garlic or even left-over cooked vegetables, to the original batter. Roll up the pancakes when cooked and serve with a salad or vegetables and a sauce. Or fill with mashed beans, vegetables, cooked grains or ground nuts, roll up and cover with a sauce (cheese or tomato). Bake for 10 minutes, reg.6.
Buckwheat Pancakes: These are a delight, having quite a different taste. They are best when savoury, with added herbs and tamari. Make in the same way, but with 2oz buckwheat flour. Stir the batter each time before making a pancake.
Pastry
Pastry made with wholewheat flour is really easy, so long as you are
prepared to break all the rules in the book, like making a wet dough,
kneading it or turning it over. It is much easier if soft fat is used,
either soft butter or oil, rather than a hard fat, although oil does
tend to make it a bit more crumbly.
Basic recipe
8 oz flour to 4oz butter, or 6oz
flour to 3oz butter
1 tsp salt
3-4 tbs water
Mix the butter and salt into the flour to form 'breadcrumbs'. Add the water bit by bit, mixing well, until you have a firm but quite soft dough. Err on the generous side with the water as it is easier to handle a soft dough than a hard one. If the dough is a bit crumbly then add a little more water.
Roll out on a floured board, kneading a little if it is still too crumbly and adding a little extra flour if too wet. Turn the pastry round and over as much as you like, making sure it doesn't stick to the board. Get to know your pastry and don't be afraid of it! Line an 8" pie dish which is very easily done by rolling the pastry onto the rolling pin and then gently rolling it off into the dish. Trim the edges.
Baking blind: this is when the pastry is baked without a filling. It helps the pastry to cook and stops it going soggy when a filling is put in. Simply, prick the bottom of the pastry with a fork and bake for 10 mins, reg 6. Then proceed with any pie recipe you fancy.
Pastry variations
Try adding one or more of the
following:
1. Grated orange or lemon rind.
2. 1
dsp fresh herbs or 1 tsp dried herbs.
3. 1 dsp sesame seeds.
4. 1 tbs ground nuts.
5. 1 dsp soya flour.
6.
3oz grated cheese.
7. 1 crushed clove garlic and lots of
black pepper.
8. Substitute 2oz oatmeal for 2oz flour, for
a crumbly, nutty flavoured pastry.
Cornmeal Pie
A golden yellow pie made with cornmeal or corn flour.
1 8" pie dish lined with pastry and baked blind
4oz corn flour
1 onion
2 tomatoes
2 eggs
1 tsp herbs
salt and black pepper
2 tbs tamari
2 oz cheese (optional)
a little oil
1/2 pint stock or water
Chop the onion and fry in a little oil. Put the onion in the bottom of the pie dish. Mix the corn flour with the water or stock, herbs, salt, pepper and tamari. Bring to the boil slowly, stirring all the time, till you have a thick, creamy mixture. Beat in the eggs and cheese and pour over the onions in the pie dish. Slice the tomatoes and arrange on top. Bake for approx. 30 minutes or until golden brown on top, at reg 5.
Carob Cake
A sticky, dark, chocolate flavoured cake. Delicious. Carob syrup has
the richest flavour, but use carob flour instead if the syrup is
unobtainable. Carob comes from the Locust bean and is similar to
chocolate in taste but is far richer in nutrients (iron, calcium,
vitamins) and is lower in fat (only 2%). Cocoa also contains Tyranine,
a possible cause of migraine headaches, that carob does not contain.
4oz butter
3 tbs carob syrup (or 2oz carob flour)
3 tbs honey
2 tbs molasses
2 eggs
the juice and rind of one orange
4 oz raisins
10 oz wholewheat flour (8oz if using carob flour)
Cream the butter, carob syrup, honey and molasses together. Beat in the eggs and the orange juice and rind, then add the raisins. If using carob flour then sieve well and mix in. Slowly add the wholewheat flour.
Line a cake tin (7-8") with greaseproof paper and spoon in the mixture. Bake for approx. 50 minutes, reg.4. or until firm in the middle.
Icing: for a change from a sugary icing, try pureed apples and dates, cooked till soft in a little orange juice and honey. Spread over the cake and sprinkle with desiccated coconut.
Fruity Fruit Cake
A rich dark one.
4oz butter
3 tbs honey
1 tbs molasses
2 eggs
12ozs dried fruit (apricots, figs, dates, raisins
etc)
3 fl oz natural yoghurt
10-12oz 100% flour
Pour boiling water over the fruit and leave to soak. Cream the butter, honey and molasses together, then beat in the eggs. Drain the fruit, chop roughly and add, also adding the yoghurt and mixing well. Gently add the flour.
Line a cake tin (7-8") with greaseproof paper. Spoon in the mixture and decorate with sliced almonds on top. Bake for 1 1/2 - 1 3/4 hours at reg.4. or until firm in the middle.